THE SEPARATION OF POWERS IN DEMOCRATIC GOVERNANCE: AN IN-DEPTH ANALYSIS

This article is written by Ridhi Budhwar of BALLB of 5^th Semester of KCL Institute of Laws, Jalandhar, an intern under Legal Vidhiya

ABSTRACT

 The separation of powers is a foundational conception in democratic governance, embedded in the conviction that dividing governmental authority into distinct branches is essential to guard individual liberties and maintain responsible governance. This research paper provides a comprehensive assay of the literal development, theoretical foundations, and contemporary significance of the separation of powers in democratic societies. Through a disquisition of the conception’s origins, the functions of the three branches of government, and the core principles bracing the separation of powers, this paper offers critical perceptivity into its enduring part in conserving popular integrity. The examination also includes case studies, specially the United States, and a relative analysis of colorful popular systems. In conclusion, the research underscores the vital significance of the separation of powers in upholding popular principles, precluding abuses of authority, and icing government responsiveness to the people it serves.

Keywords– Checks and Balances, Three Branches of Government, Legislative Branch, Executive Branch, Judicial Branch, Constitutional Governance, Montesquieu, Democracy, Fundamental Rights, Constitutional Framework.

INTRODUCTION

The separation of powers stands as a foundation of contemporary democratic governance, embodying the principles of responsibility, liberty, and the forestallment of despotism. This enduring conception, embedded in Enlightenment gospel and expounded by political thinkers similar as Montesquieu, underscores the fundamental need to divide governmental authority into distinct branches, each applying specific liabilities. Such a division serves as an essential safeguard against the connection of power, icing that the rights and interests of individualities are saved within the frame of democratic governance.

“There would be an end of everything, were the same man or same body, whether of the nobles or of the people, to exercise those three powers, that of enacting laws, that of executing the public resolutions, and of trying the cause of individuals.”[1]

This research paper embarks on a comprehensive trip to dredge into the complications of the separation of powers. It seeks to unveil the literal baseline of this conception, tracing its elaboration from the musings of philosophical luminaries to its objectification into the political structures of popular nations. likewise, it illuminates the core principles that guide the effective functioning of this system, emphasizing independence, checks and balances, participated powers, and responsibility as its pillars.

With an unvarying commitment to a transparent and objective disquisition, this paper scrutinizes the three integral branches of government — the legislative, executive, and judicial. Each branch carries a distinct set of duties, and their collaborative efforts are sustained by a profound interdependence. While the legislative branch crafts laws reflecting the will of the people, the executive executes them, and the judicial branch interprets and ensures their just operation. This intricate ballet of governance embodies the substance of the separation of powers, fostering an equilibrium where no single authority becomes overly dominant.

 As the research unfolds, it gambles into the practical counteraccusations of the separation of powers in contemporary democratic societies. It illuminates how this conception has been espoused and acclimated on a global scale, with variations that accommodate different artistic and political surrounds. also, it highlights the part of this separation in maintaining democratic stability and reinforcing mechanisms of responsibility. Through case studies a relative analysis of different democratic systems, this paper seeks to emphasize the multifaceted significance of the separation of powers in upholding popular values and icing that government remains a menial of the people rather than their master.

 In conclusion, the disquisition of the separation of powers offered herein serves as a testament to its enduring applicability and significance in the realm of democratic governance. The readings gleaned from its historical elaboration, theoretical foundations, and practical operations shed light on the integral part it plays in guarding individual freedoms, precluding the abuse of power, and securing the veritably substance of popular societies.

Historical Development

The historical development of the separation of powers conception is a fascinating trip that spans centuries and involves benefactions from various societies and thinkers. This section will concentrate on the origins of the separation of powers conception, with particular emphasis on the influential part played by the Enlightenment philosopher Montesquieu, as well as the examination of historical precedents in ancient and medieval governance that contributed to its elaboration.[2]

MONTESQUIE’S INFLUENCE

Montesquieu’s influence on the development of the separation of powers conception and its posterior acceptance in modern governance is profound and enduring. His ideas, articulated in his seminal work” The Spirit of the Laws,” played a vital part in shaping political study and the design of democratic systems. Then, we claw deeper into Montesquieu’s influence and the specific aspects of his work that contributed to the development of the separation of powers.

1. The Three Branches of Government- Montesquieu’s most notable donation was his offer to divide government into three distinct branches the legislative, the executive, and the judicial. He argued that this separation would help any single branch from accumulating too important power and would insure that each branch had a specific part in the governance process. This idea laid the foundation for the threefold system of modern democracies.
2. Checks and Balances- Montesquieu’s jottings emphasized the need for a system of checks and balances among the three branches. He believed that each branch should have the authority to check and limit the conduct of the others. For illustration, the legislative branch could make laws, but the executive could blackball them, and the judicial branch could declare them unconstitutional. This system of collective constraints was pivotal in precluding authoritarianism and assuring that no branch could dominate the others.
3. Protection of Liberties-Montesquieu’s separation of powers conception was driven by a commitment to guarding individual liberties. He believed that by dispersing authority and creating a system of government that was innately tone- regulating, the rights and freedoms of citizens could be saved. This emphasis on liberty and the prevention of arbitrary rule reverberated deeply with Enlightenment ideals and had a profound impact on the development of democratic proposition.
4. Influence on the American Authors- Montesquieu’s ideas set up rich ground in the United States during the late 18th century. numbers similar as James Madison, who’s frequently credited with being the primary mastermind of the U.S. Constitution, drew heavily from Montesquieu’s jottings. Madison’s Federalist No. 47, for illustration, explicitly references Montesquieu’s ideas on the separation of powers and checks and balances. The U.S. Constitution reflects Montesquieu’s ideology in its design of the legislative, executive, and judicial branches and its intricate system of checks and balances.
5. International Influence– Montesquieu’s work transcended public boundaries and told political study and constitutional design across the globe. His ideas played a part in shaping the governance structures of numerous popular nations, including those in Europe, Latin America, and beyond. His emphasis on the separation of powers as a safeguard against authoritarianism came a universal principle in the construction of democratic institutions.

In summary, Montesquieu’s influence on the separation of powers conception was profound and far- reaching. His ideas not only laid the theoretical root for modern democratic governance but also set up practical operation in the design of constitutional systems worldwide. Montesquieu’s enduring heritage is a testament to the enduring significance of his ideas in assuring responsible and liberty- conserving governance. [3]

THE THREE BRANCHES OF GOVERNMENT

Legislative Branch

[4]Role and Responsibilities of the Legislative Branch:

The legislative branch of government, frequently referred to as the legislature or parliament, plays a fundamental part in the democratic process. Its primary liabilities are as follows

1. Lawmaking: The legislative branch is responsible for drafting, mooting, amending, and passing laws. These laws are designed to address colorful aspects of society, including social, economic, and political issues. Lawmaking is a collective work involving elected representatives who represent the interests and concerns of their constituents.

2. Representation: Members of the legislative branch, similar as lawgivers or members of parliament, serve as representatives of the people. They’re elected by the citizens of their separate constituencies to state their concerns, advocate for their interests, and share in the decision- making process on their behalf.

3. Oversight: The legislative branch exercises oversight over the executive branch, holding it responsible for its conduct. This oversight includes conducting examinations, reviewing government programs, and checking the allocation of public finances.

4. Budgetary Authority: In numerous democratic systems, the legislative branch has the power to authorize budgets and allocate finances for government programs and services. This fiscal oversight ensures that public finances are used effectively and in agreement with the law.

5. Checks and Balances: The legislative branch serves as a critical element of the system of checks and balances. It can cause and modify laws, research executive conduct, and, in some cases, override presidential prohibitions or alike mechanisms. This helps help the executive branch from getting too important.

Relationship between the Legislative Branch and Popular Sovereignty

The legislative branch is naturally linked to the conception of popular sovereignty, which holds that the ultimate authority in a popular system rest with the people.[5]

1. Election by the People Members of the legislative branch are generally tagged directly by the citizens in their constituencies. This electoral process reflects the principle of popular sovereignty, as it allows the people to choose their representatives.

2. Lawmaking on Behalf of the People lawmakers in the legislative branch produce laws that should align with the will and interests of the people they represent. In doing so, they exercise the people’s sovereignty by rephrasing their requirements and preferences into legislation.

3. Responsibility to the People Members of the legislative branch are responsible to their ingredients. They can be removed from office through choices if they fail to adequately represent the interests of the people. This responsibility reinforces the connection between the legislative branch and popular sovereignty.

Executive Branch

Functions of the Administrative Branch in Executing and Administering Laws:

The executive branch is responsible for executing and administering the laws passed by the legislative branch. Its functions in this regard include[6]

1. Execution: The executive branch is assigned with putting laws into action. This involves carrying out executive tasks, similar as issuing regulations and directives, to ensure that the laws are applied in practice.
2. Law Enforcement: One of the central tasks of the executive branch is law enforcement. This includes maintaining public order, assuring public security, and upholding the rule of law. Law enforcement agencies, similar as the police and civil law enforcement agencies, fall under the superintendent’s governance.
3. Prosecution of Foreign Policy: The administrative branch conducts foreign policy, negotiates foreign agreements, and represents the nation on the global stage. covenants and agreements negotiated by the administrative branch frequently bear the blessing of the legislative branch.

Executive Branch’s part in Shaping and enforcing Public programs:

[7]The executive branch also plays a pivotal part in shaping and enforcing public programs. Its responsibilities include:

1. Policy Formulation: The executive branch develops and proposes programs to address colorful issues, including profitable development, healthcare, education, and environmental protection. These programs are frequently outlined in presidential or executive orders.
2. Administration of Programs: The executive branch administers government programs and services, ranging from social welfare programs to healthcare initiatives. This involves overseeing the allocation of finances and assuring that programs run efficiently.
3. Regulatory Authority: Executive agencies have the authority to produce and apply regulations that give specific details on how laws should be enforced. Regulatory agencies play a significant part in areas similar as environmental protection, consumer safety, and fiscal regulation.
4. Emergency Powers: In times of extremity or extremities, the executive branch can bring exigency powers to address immediate pitfalls to public security or public safety. still, these powers are generally subject to checks and balances to help abuse.

Judicial Branch

Part of the Judicial Branch in Interpreting and Applying Laws:

[8]The judicial branch is responsible for interpreting and applying the laws legislated by the legislative branch. Its crucial places and functions include:

1. Judicial Review: One of the most significant functions of the judicial branch is the power of judicial review. This allows courts, particularly the topmost court in a country (e.g., the Supreme Court in the United States), to assess the constitutionality of laws and government actions. However, it can be abolished, if a law is set up to be unconstitutional.[9]
2. Adjudication: The judicial branch serves as the arbitrator of legal controversies. Courts at colorful situations hear cases, interpret laws, and render judgments. This includes both civil cases involving individualities and associations and felonious cases involving violations of the law.
3. Operation of Precedent: Courts calculate on legal precedent, which refers to once court opinions, to guide their interpretations and rulings. This practice contributes to the thickness and pungency of the legal system.
4. Protection of Rights: The judicial branch plays a vital part in guarding the rights and liberties of individualities. Courts can issue injunctions, issue writs of habeas corpus, and insure due process is followed in legal proceedings.

Significance of Judicial Review and Its Impact on Constitutional Governance:

Judicial review is a foundation of constitutional governance in numerous republics:

1. Checks and Balances: Judicial review serves as a critical element of the system of checks and balances. It enables the judicial branch to check and balance the conduct of the legislative and executive branches by icing that they conform to the constitution and the rule of law.[10]
2. Preservation of Rights: Judicial review is essential for guarding individual rights and liberties. It provides a medium for individualities to challenge government conduct that may infringe upon their constitutional rights.
3. Constitutional Interpretation: The power of judicial review allows the bar to interpret and clarify the meaning of the constitution. This interpretation shapes the legal geography and attendants the operation of the law.
4. Guardian of the Constitution: The judicial branch, through judicial review, acts as a guardian of the constitution. It ensures that the government operates within the bounds of the constitution and that constitutional principles are upheld.

In summary, the legislative, executive, and judicial branches of government each play distinct yet interrelated roles in the governance of democratic societies. While the legislative branch is responsible for making laws and representing popular sovereignty, the executive branch executes and enforces those laws while shaping public policy. The judicial branch interprets and applies the laws, upholding indigenous governance through the power of judicial review. Together, these branches form the frame of popular governance, embodying the principles of separation of powers and checks and balances.

Global Adoption

Explore the frequency of the Separation of Powers in Democratic Nations Worldwide:[11]The separation of powers has come a fundamental and extensively accepted principle in democratic governance around the world. Its frequency can be observed in democratic nations across colorful mainland’s and regions. Some crucial points to consider in this context include:

1. Variety of Democratic Systems: Democratic nations encompass a wide array of political systems, including parliamentary democracies, presidential systems, and hybrid models. Despite these differences, the separation of powers is a common thread that runs through these systems.
2. Constitutional structures: Numerous countries elevate the separation of powers in their constitutions. For instance, the United States, Germany, and India explicitly delineate the roles and liabilities of the legislative, executive, and judicial branches in their individual constitutions.
3. Adaptations to Local Contexts: While the core principles of the separation of powers remain harmonious, nations frequently adapt and modify these principles to suit their unique political, artistic, and literal surrounds. These acclimations reflect the inflexibility of the conception.
4. International Influence: The influence of popular nations that have successfully enforced the separation of powers has extended beyond their borders. Other countries look to these examples when drafting their own democratic systems.

Separation of power in India

The concept of the separation of powers in India is not as explicitly codified in the constitution as it is in some other democratic nations like the United States. Instead, India’s constitution provides for a system of checks and balances among its various branches of government while also recognizing and applying the separation of powers in certain ways. Here are some articles and provisions that suggest the separation of powers in the Indian Constitution:[12] [13]

1. [14]Article 50: “Separation of judiciary from executive” is mentioned in this article. It emphasizes the significance of separating the judiciary from the executive to uphold the rule of law and help conflicts of interest.
2. Articles 74 and 75: These articles deal with the executive powers of the President of India and the Prime Minister, independently. They outline the President’s part in the executive branch and the Prime Minister’s part as the head of the government.
3. Article 53: It establishes that the executive power of the President is to be exercised by the President directly or through officer inferior to him. This separation of executive power from the head of state, the President, is a pivotal aspect of the Indian constitutional frame.
4. Article 73: This composition deals with the executive power of the Union and specifies that it extends to matters on which the Parliament has the power to make laws. It demonstrates a clear discrimination of powers between the executive and legislative branches.
5. Article 74(2): It mandates that the Council of Ministers shall be inclusively responsible to the House of the People (Lok Sabha), pressing the link between the executive branch (the Council of Ministers) and the legislature.
6. Article 123: This article grants the President the power to enunciate bills when Parliament isn’t in session, demonstrating executive authority. still, ordinances are temporary and subject to parliamentary blessing, showcasing the legislative check on the executive.
7. Article 121: It prohibits the discussion in Parliament of conduct of judges of the Supreme Court and high courts. This reflects the separation of the bar from the council to cover judicial independence.
8. Article 122 and Article 212: These articles establish the independence of the courts and cover judicial proceedings from being questioned in Parliament or state houses, independently.
9. Article 214: It provides for the establishment of high courts and empowers them to issue writs for the enforcement of fundamental rights.
10. Article 246: This article defines the distribution of legislative powers between the Union (central government) and the countries, creating a clear division of authority between the two situations of government.
11. Article 248: It grants the Parliament exclusive power to make laws on matters in the public interest, buttressing the legislative branch’s authority. [15]

These articles, among others, illustrate the Indian Constitution’s commitment to the separation of powers and the checks and balances between the various branches of government. While not explicitly labeled as similar, the principles of separation of powers are bedded throughout the constitution to insure the smooth functioning of the popular system and the protection of individual rights.

JUDICIAL PRONOUNCEMENT ON SEPARATION OF POWERS

The concept of the separation of powers is implicit in the Indian Constitution and has been reaffirmed and interpreted by the judiciary in various landmark cases. While the term “separation of powers” may not be explicitly mentioned, the principles related to it are evident in these judicial pronouncements. Here are some notable judicial decisions that highlight the significance of the separation of powers in India:[16]

1. Kesavananda Bharati v. State of Kerala (1973)[17]: This historic case is known for establishing the “basic structure” doctrine, which effectively limits the amending power of the Parliament. The Supreme Court ruled that while the Parliament has the authority to amend the constitution, it cannot alter its basic structure, which includes the principles of federalism, secularism, democracy, and the separation of powers.
2. Indira Nehru Gandhi v. Raj Narain (1975)[18]: In this case, the Supreme Court upheld the principle that the judiciary can review and examine actions taken by the executive and the legislature, ensuring that they do not exceed their constitutional powers. This judgment reinforced the role of the judiciary as a guardian of the Constitution.
3. Ram Jawaya Kapoor V State of Punjab(1955)[19]: The court held that the Indian Constitution has not indeed honored the doctrine of separation of powers in its absolute severity but the functions of the different zone or branches of the government have been sufficiently distinguished and accordingly it can be veritably well said that our Constitution doesn’t contemplate supposition by one organ or part of the state of functions that basically belong to another.
4.  S.R. Bommai v. Union of India (1994)[20]: This case emphasized the federal principle in India’s separation of powers by addressing the relationship between the state governments and the central government. The Supreme Court asserted its authority to review the President’s proclamation of President’s Rule in states to ensure that it was not arbitrary or politically motivated.
5. Re: Special Reference No. 1 of 1998 (1998)[21]: In this case, the Supreme Court ruled that the judiciary has the authority to review the constitutional validity of constitutional amendments, reiterating the judiciary’s role as the ultimate interpreter and guardian of the Constitution.
6. Vineet Narain v. Union of India (1997)[22]: This case recognized the importance of the judiciary’s role in preventing and addressing corruption in government and upholding accountability. It reiterated the judiciary’s role in ensuring that the executive and legislative branches do not engage in corrupt practices.

These judicial pronouncements underscore the judiciary’s role in upholding the separation of powers and the rule of law in India. They confirm that the three branches of government should operate independently within their respective spheres, and the judiciary plays a pivotal role in maintaining this equilibrium and ensuring that each branch functions within constitutional limits. While not explicitly using the term “separation of powers,” these cases reaffirm the principles that underlie this concept in the Indian constitutional framework.

Conclusion

The separation of powers is a foundational and dynamic principle in democratic governance, serving as a critical safeguard against tyranny, promoting responsibility, and guarding individual liberties. [23]Through this research of the conception, its historical development, practical application, and global significance, several crucial findings and perceptivity have surfaced.

1. Historical Roots and Development: The separation of powers conception has ancient and medieval precedents, but its modern expression owes important to the Enlightenment thinker Montesquieu. Montesquieu’s writings and ideas significantly told the engineers of democratic systems, including the framers of the United States Constitution.
2. Contemporary Significance: In modern democratic nations, the separation of powers isn’t a bare theoretical construct but a living principle that shapes the functioning of governments. The frequence of the separation of powers is apparent in various constitutional fabrics worldwide, including variations in parliamentary, presidential, and hybrid systems.
3. Democracy and Stability: The separation of powers contributes to the stability of democratic governance by precluding abuses of power. This is achieved through a system of checks and balances that ensures that no single branch of government becomes too important, fostering cooperation, compromise, and negotiation.
4. Responsibility Mechanisms: Responsibility mechanisms, similar as choices, indictment, and judicial review, work in tandem with the separation of powers. They give the means to hold government officers responsible for their conduct and opinions, thereby upholding the rule of law and securing popular principles.
5. Constitutional Protection: The conception of the separation of powers is elevated in the constitutions of numerous democratic nations. It provides a legal and institutional frame that reinforces the division of powers and ensures that each branch of government operates within established boundaries.
6. Global Impact: The U.S. model, with its strict separation of powers, has told the constitutional design of numerous nations. The principles of separation of powers, republic, and the rule of law have come core values in the international creation of popular governance.

In conclusion, the separation of powers is a fundamental pillar of democratic governance, essential for guarding individual liberties, precluding abuses of power, and promoting responsible government. Its rigidity to different artistic, historical, and political surrounds is a testament to its enduring applicability in contemporary republic. As the world continues to evolve, the principles of the separation of powers remain a foundation in the construction and preservation of popular societies.[24]

REFERENCES

• Aldar John, Constitutional and Administrative Law, Palgrave Macmillan, New York, 6 Ed
• Massey, I.P. (2018). Administrative law. Lucknow: Eastern Book Company.
• Legal, P. (2022). SEPARATION OF POWERS IN THE INDIAN CONSTITUTION. [online] Prime Legal. Available at: https://primelegal.in/2022/11/20/separation-of-powers-in-the-indian-constitution/.
• Mitchell, G. (2010). Judicial Review, But Not as We Know It: Judicial Review in the Upper Tribunal. Judicial Review, 15(2), pp.112–117.doi: https://doi.org/10.1080/10854681.2010.11426640
• Tej Bahadur Singh (n.d.). PRINCIPLE OF SEPARATION OF POWERS AND CONCENTRATION OF AUTHORITY. [online] Available at: http://www.ijtr.nic.in/articles/art35.pdf

[Accessed 10 Oct. 2023].

• Doctrine of Separation of Powers: Global and Indian Perspective PRIYANKA GOEL. (2014). International Journal of Research in Humanities and Social Sciences, [online] 2, p.4. Available at: https://www.raijmr.com/ijrhs/wp-content/uploads/2017/11/IJRHS_2014_vol02_issue_04_07.pdf.

[Accessed 10 Oct. 2023]

• Garg, R. (2022). Separation of powers. [online] iPleaders. Available at: https://blog.ipleaders.in/separation-of-powers/#Three-tier_machinery_of_state_government.
• United States Courts (2012). Separation of Powers in Action – U.S. v. Alvarez. [online] United States Courts. Available at: https://www.uscourts.gov/educational-resources/educational-activities/separation-powers-action-us-v-alvarez.
• Guerra, L. (n.d.). CDL-JU (2000) 21 Engl. only EUROPEAN COMMISSION FOR DEMOCRACY THROUGH LAW the Judiciary and the Separation of Powers. [online] Available at:

https://www.venice.coe.int/webforms/documents/default.aspx?pdffile=CDL-JU(2000)021-e

• Academike. (2019). Doctrine of Separation of Powers – Academike. [online] Available at: https://www.lawctopus.com/academike/doctrine-of-separation-of-powers/.
• www.legalservicesindia.com. (n.d.). Separation of Powers and Its Development with Special Reference to India. [online] Available at: http://www.legalservicesindia.com/article/1617/Separation-of-Powers-and-Its-Development-with-Special-Reference-to-India.html.
• Constitution of India. (n.d.). Read. [online] Available at: https://www.constitutionofindia.net/read/.

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[1] Aldar John, Constitutional and Administrative Law, Palgrave Macmillan, New York, 6 Ed

[2] www.britannica.com. (2023). Separation of powers | Definition & Facts | Britannica. [online] Available at: http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/473411/separation-of-powers. [Accessed 6 Oct. 2023].

[3] Hazo, R.G., 1968. Montesquieu and the Separation of Powers. ABAJ, 54, p.665.

[4] Garg, R. (2022). Separation of powers. [online] iPleaders. Available at: https://blog.ipleaders.in/separation-of-powers/#Three-tier_machinery_of_state_government [Accessed 7 Oct. 2023].

[5] Magill, M.E. (2000). The Real Separation in Separation of Powers Law. SSRN Electronic Journal. doi: https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.224797.

[6] BYJUS. (n.d.). Separation of Powers – Relationship between Executive, Legislature & Judiciary – Indian Polity. [online] Available at: https://byjus.com/free-ias-prep/separation-power-indian-constitution/.

[7] United States Courts (2012). Separation of Powers in Action – U.S. v. Alvarez. [online] United States Courts. Available at: https://www.uscourts.gov/educational-resources/educational-activities/separation-powers-action-us-v-alvarez.

[8] Guerra, L. (n.d.). CDL-JU (2000) 21 Engl. only EUROPEAN COMMISSION FOR DEMOCRACY THROUGH LAW The Judiciary and the Separation of Powers. [online] Available at: https://www.venice.coe.int/webforms/documents/default.aspx?pdffile=CDL-JU(2000)021-e [Accessed 9 Aug. 2023].

[9] Mitchell, G. (2010). Judicial Review, But Not As We Know It: Judicial Review in the Upper Tribunal. Judicial Review, 15(2), pp.112–117.doi:https://doi.org/10.1080/10854681.2010.11426640.

[10] Tej Bahadur Singh (n.d.). PRINCIPLE OF SEPARATION OF POWERS AND CONCENTRATION OF AUTHORITY. [online] Available at: http://www.ijtr.nic.in/articles/art35.pdf [Accessed 10 Oct. 2023].

[11] Doctrine of Separation of Powers: Global and Indian Perspective PRIYANKA GOEL. (2014). International Journal of Research in Humanities and Social Sciences, [online] 2, p.4. Available at: https://www.raijmr.com/ijrhs/wp-content/uploads/2017/11/IJRHS_2014_vol02_issue_04_07.pdf. [Accessed 10 Oct. 2023]

[12] Garg, R. (2022). Separation of powers. [online] iPleaders. Available at: https://blog.ipleaders.in/separation-of-powers/#Three-tier_machinery_of_state_government.

[13] Legal, P. (2022). SEPARATION OF POWERS IN THE INDIAN CONSTITUTION. [online] Prime Legal. Available at: https://primelegal.in/2022/11/20/separation-of-powers-in-the-indian-constitution/.

[14] INDIA CONST. art. 50§

[15] INDIA CONST. art. 73,74(2),75,121,122,123,212,214,246,248§

[16] Legal, P. (2022). SEPARATION OF POWERS IN THE INDIAN CONSTITUTION. [online] Prime Legal.

Available at: https://primelegal.in/2022/11/20/separation-of-powers-in-the-indian-constitution/.

[17] Keshavnanda Bharathi vs State of Kerala; AIR 1973 SC 1461;225

[18] Indira Nehru Gandhi v. Raj Narain , AIR 1975 SC 2299;

[19] Ram Jawaya Kapoor V State of Punjab AIR 1955 SC 549, 2 SCR 225

[20] S.R. Bommai v. Union of India;2 SCR 644: AIR 1994 SC 1918: (1994)

[21] re Special Reference No 1 of 1998, AIR 1999 SC 1

[22] Vineet Narain & Others vs. Union of India & Another,1997 1 SCC 226

[23] Massey, I.P. (2018). Administrative law. Lucknow: Eastern Book Company.

[24] Basu, Administrative Law(1996) p.26