THE ANTIQUITIES AND ART TREASURES ACT, 1972

ABSTRACT

An Indian law passed in 1972 called the Antiquities and Art Treasures Act sought to stop the illegal smuggling and trafficking of cultural artwork. In an effort to protect the nation’s rich cultural legacy, it controls the export of antiques and artwork. The Act creates authorities to enforce these regulations, defines antiquities and art treasures, and limits their transfer outside of India. It is essential to preserving India’s artistic and historical legacy. India’s significant laws, such as the Antiquities and Art Treasures Act, 1972, were enacted with the intention of protecting the nation’s rich cultural legacy. The purpose of this Act is to counteract the illicit trade and smuggling of art treasures and antiquities, which are seriously harming India’s artistic and historical heritage.

KEYWORDS

Antiquities, Smuggling, Cultural Heritage, Art Treasures, Archaeological sites, Fraudulent dealing, Protected objects, Provenance, Antique idols, Repatriation issues, Red Tapism.

INTRODUCTION

Ancient artifacts and artwork, such as jewelry, paintings, and sculptures, have long played a significant role in the culture of India’s people. Regretfully, India’s treasures have been stolen and destroyed for a very long time even before the country was freed from British colonial rule. This is a persistent problem that needs to be addressed right away. The Antiquities and Art Treasuries Act, passed by Parliament in 1972, repealed the Antiquities (Export Control) Act of 1947. Artworks of great cultural and historical significance are gathered and displayed by the Archaeological Survey of India, a branch of the Ministry of Culture.[1]

According to the Antiquities and Art Treasures Act of 1972, an object or article that is 100 years of age or older qualifies as an “antiquity.” It could be a coin, a sculpture, an epigraph, a painting, a thing taken from a cave or a building, or anything that depicts the literature, science, art, crafts, or customs of a bygone era, or anything else of historical significance. It should be at least 75 years old if it is a manuscript or other record with scientific, historical, literary, or artistic value. A human work of art that is not ancient and has been designated as a treasure by the Center for Cultural Heritage due to its artistic merits after the artist’s passing is known as an art treasure. On the other hand, unregistered antiquity is illegal to possess. “Every person who owns, controls, or is in possession of any antiquity” is required by Section 14(3) of the Act to register it with a registering officer and obtain a certificate of registration within 15 days of obtaining it.

ANTIQUITIES AND ART TREASURES ACT, 1972

To prevent smuggling and fraudulent commercial activities involving antiques, control the export of antiquities and sculptures, acquire antiquities and sculptures for conservation purposes, and address other related matters, the Antiquities and Art Treasures Act, 1972, was passed. The Act defines “antiquity” as any sculpture, coin, picture epigraph, other artwork, writing, item taken out of a cave or other structure, or item that represents political, scientific, literary, traditional, or religious matters from antiquity. It also contains historical items or artifacts that have been recognized as antiques by the Central Government and have been used for at least a century, as well as any writings or records that have lasted for at least 75 years and are valuable in history or science.[2]

According to the Act, an “art treasure” is any work that is not ancient and that the Central Government has recognized by publishing in the Gazette, taking into account its creative or aesthetic value. The Act prohibits the export of historic or artistic treasures by anyone other than the Central Government or an authorized party. Only in accordance with the conditions and terms of the permit granted by the designated authority may the Central Government or any authorized individual export antiquities.

The 1962 Customs Act, which forbids the export of antiquities, will serve as the guide for this export. After the Act takes effect, conducting business, such as selling any historically significant items, is forbidden unless permitted by the license terms granted under the Act. This prohibition lasts for six months. Licensing officers who are Gazette Officers in government departments may be appointed by the central government. The Central Government will decide on the licensing officers’ roles and authority. A person must submit an application for a license to the relevant licensing officer with jurisdiction if they want to engage in the commercial dealing of antiquities. After receiving the application, the licensing officer will investigate as needed before granting a license, taking into account the applicant’s prior experience dealing with antiquities as well as the location of the business. Along with other requirements, the licensing officer will take into account the quantity of people conducting antiquity-related business in the same area and other elements required to grant a license.[3]

SALIENT FEATURES OF THE ACT

The primary objectives of India’s Antiquities and Art Treasures Act of 1972 are the preservation and safeguarding of historical monuments, archaeological sites, and artistic legacies. A few noteworthy characteristics are:

Rules of Export: To protect the nation’s cultural heritage, the act limits the export of antiquities and artwork by requiring a license before exporting them.
Mastery over Transactions: To stop their illicit trade and trafficking and to encourage their conservation within the nation, it controls the exchange of antiquities and art treasures.
Safeguarding of National Heritage: The act attempts to prevent priceless antiquities and artifacts from being removed from India as well as from being stolen, damaged, or excavated without permission.
Authority Establishment: The law designates authorities in charge of antiquities and art treasures’ conservation, preservation, and management.
Impacts: To discourage such activities, it lays out the penalties and fines associated with offenses pertaining to the illicit export, trade, or destruction of antiquities and artwork treasures.
Records and Stock: To enable their correct identification, preservation, and monitoring, the act places a strong emphasis on keeping records, inventories, and documentation of antiquities and art treasures.
Preservation of Heritage: It ensures the authenticity and historical significance of heritage sites by providing legal measures for their conservation and protection.

Together, these clauses seek to protect India’s cultural and historical legacy by outlawing the illicit trade in priceless artifacts and guaranteeing their preservation for future generations.

AUTHORITIES OF THE ACT

In India, various authorities are established by the Antiquities and Art Treasures Act of 1972 to oversee the conservation, management, and safeguarding of antiquities and art treasures. Among the principal authorities granted by this act are:

Central Government: The Indian central government oversees putting the act into effect and has the power to enact rules and regulations to ensure that the law is administered properly.
Antiquities Advisory Board: This body provides guidance to the national government on issues pertaining to the defense, preservation, and conservation of art treasures and antiquities. Experts in archaeology, art history, conservation, and related fields make up this group.[4]
Registration Officers: Selected by the federal government, these individuals oversee keeping track of documents, registering art treasures and antiquities, and guaranteeing that the act’s rules are followed.
Appropriate Authorities: Nominated by the national government, these authorities supervise the licensing of antiquities and art treasures for import, export, or conveyance. They also have the authority to search and confiscate objects connected to the act’s infraction.

IMPORTANT PROVISIONS OF THE ACT

Section 2: Definition of Antiquities

According to the Act, antiquities include any coin, sculpture, painting, epigraph, or other artistic or handcrafted creation; any item, object, or thing that is separated from a building or cave; any item, object, or thing that serves as an example of science, art, crafts, literature, religion, customs, morals, or politics in the past; any item of historical significance; and any item, object, or thing that the Central Government designates as an antiquity for the purposes of this Act.

Section 3: Regulation of Export Trade in Antiquities and Art Treasures

Under the terms and conditions of a permit issued by the Central Government or any authority or officer designated in this capacity by the Central Government, the export of antiquities and art treasures is prohibited.

Section 5: Dealer Licensing

The Act mandates that all antiquities dealers apply for and receive a license from the Central Government.[5]

Section 6: Compulsory Acquisition of Antiquities and Art Treasures

The Act gives the Central Government the authority to compulsory acquire any antiquity or art treasure for preservation in a public space, whether it was found prior to or subsequent to the Act’s enactment.

Section 25: Offenses and Penalties

The Act stipulates severe consequences for breaking its rules, such as up to five years in prison, a fine, or both.

GOVERNMENT MEASURES

The Indian government has put in place several measures to protect and manage antiquities and art treasures in accordance with the Antiquities and Art Treasures Act of 1972:

Accreditation and Guidelines: Licenses are granted by the government to export, import, or transfer art treasures and antiquities. These licenses are required to make sure that these kinds of activities follow the law and support the conservation of cultural heritage.
Authority Establishment: To monitor and implement the act’s provisions, the government has established agencies like the Antiquities Advisory Board, Registration Officers, and Appropriate Authorities. These organizations are essential in providing guidance, registering and controlling the trade, and safeguarding priceless works of art and antiquities.
Protection of National Heritage: Laws are enforced by the government to prevent illicit excavation, damage, or unapproved exportation of historic monuments, archaeological sites, and artistic heritage. To protect and conserve national heritage sites, strict regulations are needed.[6]
Record-Keeping and Documentation: Government campaigns place a strong emphasis on the registration, documentation, and upkeep of records pertaining to antiques and works of art. This aids in these cultural artifacts’ correct identification, traceability, and management.
Sanctions and Implementation: For breaking the act, one faces jail time, fines, and penalties from the government. This prevents illicit activities like smuggling, illicit trade, and damage to priceless antiques and works of art.

All these actions are intended to control, safeguard, and maintain India’s rich cultural legacy, which is represented by antiques and priceless works of art. The goal of the government’s actions under this act is to guarantee that these priceless artifacts are managed responsibly and preserved for future generations.

ISSUES UNDER THE ACT

National database: To control the trade in antiquity, there ought to be a national database. We can use the Cultural Heritage Squad as an example in this situation, as they have created a database of lost artifacts. It is among the most remarkable police forces when it comes to safeguarding antiques. Over eight lakh artifacts that were missing have been found by the force.
Increasing ASI’s Capacity: To help ASI regulate the antiquity market more successfully, more money and resources should be given to it. Similarly, the Export and Import Bill’s 2017 Draft Antiquities and Art Treasures Regulation gives ASI the authority to search any home if it believes antiques have been improperly stored.
The export of antiquities is prohibited. Appropriate regulatory frameworks are needed to control the antiquities trade. Exporting antiques to other nations is prohibited by the Draft Antiquities and Art Treasures Regulation, Export and Import Bill, 2017. Antiquities may only be exported by the government or its agencies. It will help stop antiquity from being smuggled onto the international scene.[7]

ANTIQUITIES BILL 2017

To modernize and update the current legal framework governing the protection of antiquities and art treasures, the Antiquities and Art Treasures Regulation, Export and Import Control Bill, 2017 was introduced in India. This bill established strict guidelines for the import, export, and trading of antiquities and art objects to improve the regulation, control, and preservation of cultural heritage. It suggested creating a National Register of Antiquities to keep track of and record antiquities and works of art. The goal of the bill was to stop the illicit trafficking and smuggling of antiquities by regulating the purchase, ownership, and disposal of such cultural artifacts. It also sought to strengthen global standards-based cooperation between nations in the preservation of cultural heritage and expedite the repatriation of antiquities that had been illegally exported. The bill placed a strong emphasis on the necessity of a coordinated, all-encompassing strategy to protect India’s rich cultural legacy, encourage openness in transactions involving antiquities, and guarantee their survival for upcoming generations. However, more legislative updates or research is needed for the bill’s status, advancement, or enactment beyond its introduction stage in 2017.

PREVENTIVE MEASURES

The Antiquities (Export Control) Act of 1947 was repealed by the Antiquities and Art Treasures Act of 1972, and the “Rules” were enacted therein in 1973. The Act stipulates the mandatory registration of designated antiquity categories controlling the export of priceless artwork and antiquities. Anybody other than the Center or its agencies is not permitted to export antiquities under Section 3 of the Act.[8]

Preventing fraudulent antique transactions and smuggling
Acquisition of antiquities and artwork must be mandatory in order to prevent it in public areas.
In order to make it easier for customs authorities to approve the export of non-antiquities, the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) has set up Expert Advisory Committees to certify non-antiquities.
The Antiquities (Export Control) Act of 1947 was repealed by the Antiquities and Art Treasures Act of 1972, and the “Rules” were enacted therein in 1973. The Act stipulates the mandatory registration of designated antiquity categories, controlling the export of priceless artwork and antiquities. Anybody other than the Center or its agencies is not permitted to export antiquities under Section 3 of the Act.
Preventing fraudulent antique transactions and smuggling
Acquisition of antiquities and artwork must be mandatory in order to prevent it in public areas.
To make it easier for customs authorities to approve the export of non-antiquities, the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) has set up Expert Advisory Committees to certify non-antiquities. ASI officers are stationed at all significant international departure points for air and sea transportation to support customs authorities in their efforts to differentiate between antiques and non-antiques.[9]
An Antique Cell has been established by the Central Bureau of Investigation (CBI) to investigate cases of theft and loss involving antiques.
National Mission for Monuments and Antiquities (2007). Its objective was to compile antiquities from different sources into a standardized database so that a National Register of Antiquities could be established. According to the Culture Ministry, over 14 lakh antiquities were registered as of 2016.
Civil Society Initiative India Pride Project. This global volunteer network tracks and returns India’s stolen art treasures and antiques.

INTERNATIONAL MEASURES

Convention on the Means of Prohibiting and Preventing the illicit Import, Export and Transfer of Ownership of Cultural Property (1970): According to the Convention, the contracting parties must take action to stop the unauthorized import of stolen cultural property into their borders.
UNIDROIT Convention on Stolen or Illegally Exported Cultural Objects (1995): It contains provisions for the return of stolen property and describes the types of objects that are covered. The Convention specifies the conditions that must be met in order to order the return of cultural artifacts that have been unlawfully exported.[10]

PROVENANCE OF ANTIQUITY

The list of all owners from the moment the item left the maker’s hands until the present owner purchased it is included in the provenance. For instance, following the Kohinoor Diamond’s “provenance”: 1306: It is during this period that the diamond, which has not yet been given the name Kohinoor, is first mentioned in historical documents as belonging to the Rajas of Malwa.

1526: Before Sultan Mahamad, his grandson, acquired the diamond, it was owned by Shah Jahan and Aurangzeb.
1739: The diamond and Delhi were taken by Persian general Nadir Shah, who also gave the city its now-famous name, Kohinoor, after defeating Mahamad.
1813: Shah Shuja Durrani returns the diamond to India, bringing it to Punjab and giving it to Maharaja Ranjit Singh.
1849: Duleep Singh cedes the kingdom and the diamond to the British after the British win the second Anglo-Sikh War.
1852: The Kohinoor diamond is transported to England.
Present ownership: The United Kingdom has retained ownership of the gem despite claims to it being made by Afghanistan, Pakistan, and India.[11]

CONSTITUTIONAL PROVISIONS RELATED TO INDIAN HERITAGE

The following clauses about Indian ancestry are found in Schedule Seven of the Indian Constitution:

Union List: Ancient and historical monuments and records, as well as archaeological sites and remains [designated as of national importance by or under a law passed by Parliament], are included.
State List: Ancient and historical monuments and records, other than those deemed by or under legislation made by Parliament to be of national importance; libraries, museums, and other comparable establishments under state control or funding.
Concurrent List: Archaeological sites and remnants not specifically listed as 1 [designated as being of national significance by legislation passed by Parliament].
Directive Principles of State Policy: Any monument, site, or historical or creative artifact that the Parliament has determined to be of national significance or that has been designated as such by a law that the Parliament has passed must be preserved by the State according to Article 49.
Fundamental Duty: According to Article 51A of the Indian Constitution, it is the responsibility of every Indian citizen to cherish and protect our rich cultural legacy.
Lawmaking: the passing of the Antiquities (Export Control) Act, which forbade the export of antiquities without a license in 1947.

To protect historic sites and monuments from damage and abuse, the Ancient Monuments and Archaeological Sites and Remains Act was passed in 1958. On April 1, 1976, the Antiquities and Art Treasures Act, 1972 (AATA), came into effect. The Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) is the authority that granted this license.[12]

CHALLENGES IN CONSERVATION OF ANTIQUITIES

Definition of Antiquity: According to critics, the legal definition is so sweeping that anything older than a century is inherently considered antiquated.
Replicas: It is not illegal to produce an exact replica of an antiquity using the same dimensions, composition, and fabric. This legal loophole has made it much easier to replace a number of original objects with replicas.
Disincentive to register: The 1972 Act gave the government new grounds for raids and prosecutions of private collectors on the grounds of “inadequate maintenance of the object.” Even within India, there are strict restrictions on the movement and trade of antiquities. Most people are discouraged from registering their antiques by such clauses. This has unintentionally discouraged domestic trade, which has resulted in the smuggling of antiques. Additionally, most collectors find the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) registration process to be onerous and challenging, which discourages them from registering their antiquities.
Penalties: The Act’s penalties are too light to discourage people from breaking it.
Problems with ASI: The upkeep, restoration, and preservation of historic monuments and archaeological sites has taken up the majority of the ASI’s attention and resources. Its already few resources are being taxed more heavily by the additional mandate to oversee the antiquities market.
Problems with the Investigation: The investigating agency for antique theft and smuggling is not experienced in handling these kinds of cases. The CBI lacks the necessary resources to handle antiquities that have been stolen.
Lack of Strategy: According to the CAG report, ASI lacks a long- or medium-term strategy to fulfill its mandate. The conservation activities were done every year or as needed.
Restitution concerns: It can take a long time and be difficult to retrieve stolen antiquities from other nations; it may involve legal issues as well as diplomatic negotiations.
Illegal trafficking and looting: Due to its rich cultural legacy, India is a prime destination for illicit antiquity trafficking and looting.
Inadequate law enforcement: It is difficult to successfully monitor and stop the illegal antiquity trade due to a lack of resources and lax enforcement. Just 1,493 of the 4,408 items that were taken from 3,676 ASI-protected monuments across the country between 2008 and 2012 were able to be stopped by law enforcement, according to data from the National Crime Records Bureau.
Red tape: Protracted and intricate bureaucratic procedures can make it more difficult to properly document, conserve, and preserve antiques.
Urbanization and encroachment: Due to development projects and rapid urbanization, historical and archaeological sites are occasionally destroyed or encroached upon.
Underfunding and resource limitations: It is sometimes difficult to find the substantial financial resources and qualified staff needed for the conservation and management of antiquities.
Climate and environmental factors: The preservation of antiquities may be threatened by natural elements like weather and pollution.[13]

PROPOSED AMENDMENT TO ANTIQUITIES ACT, 1972

The 2017 Draft Export and Import Bill for Antiquities and Art Treasures Regulation:

It states that as soon as the new bill is signed into law, all licenses granted under the 1972 Act will be revoked.
Exporting antiques is forbidden by the draft unless authorized by the government or one of its agencies.
Nonetheless, it essentially removes all restrictions on trade in such goods within the nation. A dealer is required to use an online portal run by the ASI to notify the government of the transaction.
Additionally, the draft has eliminated customs duties for artists returning with their own creations and for anyone bringing back antiques of Indian origin following a legal purchase.
Due to its lenient registration and licensing requirements, the Draft Antiquities Bill of 2017 has sparked concerns from activists that it will encourage illegal trade and facilitate theft.[14]

WAY FORWARD

There are gaps in the Antiquity Act of 1972 that need to be filled, and the need for a new, comprehensive law to safeguard Indian antiques and art treasures is highlighted by smuggling and improper handling of antiques. In order to prevent the theft of antiques and artifacts, museum security regulations need to be reviewed and reinforced. Only the upkeep and preservation of public antiquities should fall under the purview of the Archaeological Society of India. It is imperative that the ASI is not inundated with duties that transcend its primary purview. Thus, it is imperative to establish agencies with the necessary authority to handle antiques. Building a comprehensive database of both stolen and currently owned antiques and artifacts is crucial.

CASE LAW

Ram Lal Narang v. State (Delhi Administration)

The case concerns the theft and smuggling of an ancient Lord Mahavira idol from a Delhi Jain temple. Later, the idol was discovered in London. Ram Lal Narang, the defendant, was accused of plotting to commit theft and smuggling. Narang was charged by the prosecution with organizing a plot to steal the idol, transport it illegally from India, and resell it in London.

The primary question was whether the Indian Penal Code and the Customs Act allowed the accused to be tried and found guilty for both theft and smuggling of the idol. The accused could be tried for both charges and found guilty, the Supreme Court ruled. The court determined that smuggling and theft were two separate crimes, each with unique requirements and consequences. The court reasoned that the acts of stealing the idol and smuggling it afterwards were distinct crimes.[15] Once the idol was removed from the temple, the theft was finished, and when it was removed from India, the smuggling offense was also finished. As a result, the defendant may face trial and conviction for both charges. The primary question was whether the Indian Penal Code and the Customs Act allowed the accused to be tried and found guilty for both theft and smuggling of the idol. The accused could be tried for both charges and found guilty, the Supreme Court ruled.

The court determined that smuggling and theft were two separate crimes, each with unique requirements and consequences. The court reasoned that the acts of stealing the idol and smuggling it afterwards were distinct crimes. Once the idol was removed from the temple, the theft was finished, and when it was removed from India, the smuggling offense was also finished. As a result, the defendant may face trial and conviction for both charges. The evolution of criminal law in India has been greatly influenced by this ruling, especially in situations involving intricate criminal activity.

T. Muthukumar v. Commissioner of Customs, Chennai

T. Muthukumar, the appellant, was charged with encouraging and abetting the smuggling of goods. He worked as a customs broker. He was fined under Sections 112(a) and 114AA of the Customs Act, 1962, by the Commissioner of Customs, Chennai. This order was appealed by the appellant. The primary questions were whether the appellant could be held accountable for encouraging the smuggling of goods in his capacity as a customs broker and whether the sanctions imposed on him were appropriate. According to the tribunal, the appellant was responsible for encouraging the smuggling of goods. It did, however, lessen the punishments meted out to him. The appellant was found to have neglected to use due diligence in his capacity as a customs broker by the Tribunal. The fact that he had not confirmed the legitimacy of the documents that were shown to him made it easier to smuggle goods. As a result, the penalties were lessened. The principle that customs brokers have an obligation to use reasonable diligence in their work was upheld by the case. Under the Customs Act of 1962, they risk being prosecuted for encouraging and abetting smuggling if they don’t comply. Other cases involving customs brokers have referenced this case. It has reaffirmed the idea that customs brokers must act with reasonable caution and risk being held accountable for encouraging smuggling if they don’t. The significance of exercising due diligence in customs brokers’ work is emphasized by this ruling. It makes it very evident that customs brokers cannot avoid responsibility by pretending they are unaware of their clients’ unlawful activity. Simultaneously, it underscores the necessity of maintaining proportionality when applying sanctions. The Customs Act of 1962’s obligations and possible liabilities for customs brokers have been made clearer thanks to this decision.[16]

Union of India v. Hassan Ali Khan

Businessman Hassan Ali Khan was charged with tax evasion and money laundering. Khan was accused by the Enforcement Directorate (ED) of hiding billions of dollars in foreign banks, which he failed to reveal to the Income Tax Department.

However, the Union of India filed an appeal with the Supreme Court after the Bombay High Court granted him bail. The Supreme Court was asked to decide whether Khan’s bail was appropriate given the seriousness of the charges against him, which had been granted by the Bombay High Court. The Bombay High Court erred in granting Khan bail, according to the Supreme Court. The High Court’s ruling was overturned by the Court, which also ordered Khan to be placed under arrest. The allegations against Khan, the Supreme Court reasoned, were serious in nature and involved substantial sums of money that were purportedly hidden in foreign banks. The Court observed that these offenses have a negative impact on the nation’s economy.

The Court further noted that in granting bail, the High Court had failed to appropriately consider the seriousness of the offense. The legal principle established by this case is that judges should exercise caution when granting bail in situations involving serious economic offenses. Given the seriousness of the offense and its potential effects on the economy, courts have become more circumspect when deciding whether to grant bail in these situations. The severity with which the Indian judiciary regards economic offenses is demonstrated by this ruling. It makes a clear statement that people facing similar charges won’t be able to get bail easily, especially if the charges have a big effect on the economy. The way that cases similar to this one is handled going forward has been impacted by the precedent this case.[17]

CONCLUSION

In conclusion, the Antiquities and Art Treasures Act of 1972 is a noteworthy legislative framework that has been instrumental in safeguarding and conserving India’s cultural legacy. It has assisted in controlling the ownership, export, and import of antiquities and artwork, thereby reducing the illicit trade in these priceless artifacts. Even though the act has significantly improved India’s cultural heritage preservation, there are still issues that must be resolved to make its application even more stable. We can guarantee the continuous protection and preservation of India’s priceless antiquities and art treasures for future generations to enjoy and learn from by increasing awareness, strengthening enforcement measures, and improving coordination.

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[1] https://www.jatinverma.org/analysis-of-antiquities-and-art-treasures-act-in-india (Last visited on November 6, 2023)

[2] https://lawyerslaw.org/the-antiquities-and-art-treasures-act-1972/ (Last visited on November 6, 2023)

[3] https://lawyerslaw.org/the-antiquities-and-art-treasures-act-1972/ (Last visited on November 7, 2023)

[4] https://lawyerslaw.org/the-antiquities-and-art-treasures-act-1972/ (Last visited on November 7, 2023)

[5]https://www.indiacode.nic.in/handle/123456789/1693?view_type=browse&sam_handle=123456789/1362 (Last visited on November 7, 2023)

[6]https://indiaculture.gov.in/sites/default/files/acts_rules/TheAntiquitiesandArtTreasuresAct1972_12.03.2018.pdf (Last visited on November 7, 2023)

[7] https://byjus.com/question-answer/antiquities-and-art-treasures-act-1972-has-long-outlived-the-purpose-for-which-it-was/ (Last visited on November 7, 2023)

[8] https://forumias.com/blog/antiquities-and-art-treasures-act-in-india-an-analysis/ (Last visited on November 7, 2023)

[9] https://forumias.com/blog/antiquities-and-art-treasures-act-in-india-an-analysis/ (Last visited on November 7, 2023)

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[11] https://pwonlyias.com/current-affairs/antiquities-and-art-treasure-act/ (Last visited on November 7, 2023)

[12] https://pwonlyias.com/current-affairs/antiquities-and-art-treasure-act/ (Last visited on November 8, 2023)

[13] https://pwonlyias.com/current-affairs/antiquities-and-art-treasure-act/ (Last visited on November 8, 2023)

[14] https://forumias.com/blog/antiquities-and-art-treasures-act-in-india-an-analysis/ (Last visited on November 8, 2023)

[15]https://www.casemine.com/search/in/antiquities%2Band%2Bart%2Btreasures%2Bact%2C%2B1972 (Last visited on November 9, 2023)

[16]https://www.casemine.com/search/in/antiquities%2Band%2Bart%2Btreasures%2Bact%2C%2B1972 (Last visited on November 9, 2023)

[17]https://www.casemine.com/search/in/antiquities%2Band%2Bart%2Btreasures%2Bact%2C%2B1972 (Last visited on November 9, 2023)

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