WOMEN IN SPORTS: LEGAL PROTECTION AND EQUALITY

This article is written by R Nakul Krishna of Ramaiah college of Law, an intern under Legal Vidhiya

ABSTRACT

This paper examines the dynamic progression of gender equality within the realm of sports, focusing on legal safeguards, policy-level interventions, and broader societal changes.

Women athletes, historically sidelined, have encountered numerous obstacles, including entrenched cultural norms, discriminatory practices, limited legal support, and minimal media visibility. The research outlines significant legal and historical turning points—such as the implementation of Title IX in the U.S., India’s post-independence athletic developments, and global conventions like CEDAW—that have facilitated increased female involvement in sports. Despite notable strides, challenges remain, particularly in the areas of media bias, unequal remuneration, underrepresentation in leadership roles, and insufficient protection against abuse. Through the analysis of legal frameworks, media trends, and real-world examples, this study contends that while legal provisions are essential, genuine gender parity in sports can only be achieved through deep-rooted cultural change, institutional responsibility, and sustained advocacy. Ultimately, the paper calls for an integrated approach that combines legal enforcement with social reform to transform gender equality in sports from a theoretical objective into a lived experience.

KEYWORDS

Gender Equality, Women in Sports, Legal Protection, Title IX, CEDAW, Sports Law, Media Representation, Gender Discrimination, Female Athletes, Institutional Reform, Harassment in Sports, Indian Sports History, Human Rights and Sports, Gender Pay Gap, Cultural Barriers in Sports

INTRODUCTION

As a crucial component in advancing and defending human rights, gender equality has grown in importance within both national and international organisations. This issue becomes critical when we examine the sports industry. Despite being widely praised, sports have historically been among the most recalcitrant sectors in terms of minorities’ and women’s complete integration. There are intricate legal, financial, and cultural issues surrounding the gender gap in athletics, in addition to who receives opportunities and attention. Therefore, from the creation of rules to their daily implementation, the legal frameworks governing sports must guarantee equitable treatment at all levels[1]. Sports have a positive impact on athletes’ health and well-being, as is well documented. It’s easy to overlook the potential damage to athletes’ health and well-being that could happen when deliberate violence or

mistreatment, such as abuse and harassment, compromises their integrity. Realising that all forms of harassment and abuse violate human rights and may even be illegal is crucial[2].

Many sports organizations struggle to adequately address incidents of harassment and abuse, often due to a lack of awareness, a culture of silence, or concerns about protecting their public image. Since social issues are not isolated from the sports world, evidence from other sectors highlights that sports institutions are equally vulnerable to such problems and cannot presume immunity. Evaluating whether the sports industry has effective safeguards in place remains a complex task. Nonetheless, athletes—particularly as they advance through high- performance training and talent development pathways—are at increased risk of experiencing various forms of abuse, including sexual, physical, and emotional. It is the responsibility of sports governing bodies to ensure that participants in their programs are protected from misconduct, including sexual abuse, harassment, and unlawful discrimination[3].

HISTORICAL CONTEXT OF WOMEN IN SPORTS

Before the 1970s, women were generally excluded from many technical and academic disciplines such as automotive studies, woodworking, mathematics, and science. Professional schools—except for those related to teaching, nursing, and similar fields—often imposed strict admission restrictions on women. Those who did manage to enter male-dominated academic or professional programs frequently faced bias, discrimination, and harassment.

During the 1970s, the women’s rights movement highlighted equal access to education and employment as key areas needing reform.

A significant breakthrough came with the passage of Title IX under the Education Amendments Act of 1972. This federal legislation required institutions receiving government funding to offer equal opportunities to women across academics and extracurricular activities, including sports. It marked a turning point, leading to a dramatic rise in female athletic participation, which had previously been underprioritized and underfunded. The Amateur Sports Act of 1978 further reinforced this progress by prohibiting discrimination in amateur sports programs outside the school system based on sex, race, or disability.

As a result of these measures, the number of girls participating in high school sports increased substantially, from 1 in 27 in 1972 to 1 in 3 by 1998. Today, women constitute a large segment of recreational athletes, dominating in sports like volleyball and forming a substantial share of the running and soccer communities. In contrast to men, who traditionally concentrated on a limited number of sports, women have shown interest across a wider range of athletic disciplines. This upward trend is expected to continue, with future projections indicating that girls’ participation rates in sports may eventually reach parity with boys[4].

DEVELOPMENT IN INDIA: In India, women’s involvement in sports saw notable progress after independence, with female athletes at times matching or even surpassing their male counterparts in certain disciplines. Because of prevailing cultural attitudes and societal

expectations that primarily restricted sports to men, women’s participation in sports was formerly limited to a small number of outliers, primarily Anglo-Indian women or those who defied social norms. Anglo-Indian women were among the initial pioneers, particularly in sports like hockey. Pioneers such as Ann Lumsden and Elvera Britto made a mark in hockey, and Janice Satur and Elizabeth Davenport excelled in track and field. Their efforts extended beyond the field of play, as they influenced sectors such as railroads and the postal service. Following independence, women from metropolitan areas like Bombay, Bangalore, and Calcutta began emerging in national athletics. During this period, athletes such as Stephen and Mary D’Souza gained recognition. A major turning point came at the 1952 Helsinki Olympics, where Indian women made their first appearance on the international sports stage, represented by sprinter Mary D’Souza and hurdler Nilima Ghose. Mary Leela Rao later became a member of the Indian delegation and led the nation’s female athletes at the 1956 Summer Olympics in Melbourne[5].

INTERNATIONAL LEGAL FRAMEWORK FOR GENDER EQUALITY IN SPORTS

The international legal system provides a foundational basis for promoting gender equality in sports. Over the years, various global treaties—some dating back to the 19th century—have stressed the importance of guaranteeing equal opportunities and rights for all people, regardless of gender, ethnicity, or nationality. Among the most influential of these is the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW), which explicitly upholds women’s full participation across all spheres of life, including athletics. Its broad ratification by UN member nations has led to significant legal progress in encouraging more inclusive practices within sports governance and athlete participation[6].

Nevertheless, despite the existence of formal legal frameworks supporting gender equality, their on-ground application remains inconsistent, largely due to entrenched cultural stereotypes and societal attitudes that continue to sideline women in professional athletics. Historically, the structure of most sports has been predominantly male-centric, creating significant obstacles to equal participation. The International Olympic Committee (IOC) has taken active steps to foster inclusivity by boosting female representation in the Olympic Games and advocating for a more equitable distribution across sporting disciplines. While these efforts have led to some progress, true gender equality in sports cannot be achieved through legislation alone. It demands a fundamental shift in public perception and institutional practices to ensure that the rights granted by law are genuinely upheld in everyday sporting experiences[7].

MEDIA STEREOTYPING AND GENDER BIAS

Studies consistently show that women’s sports continue to receive minimal media coverage. For example, only around 4% of ESPN’s total broadcast time is dedicated solely to women’s sporting events. When female athletes are featured, the reports are often brief and lack the detailed analysis typically afforded to men’s sports. A global study of newspapers from over twenty countries revealed that just 11% of sports stories focused on women. These figures reveal an ongoing and widespread gender disparity in sports journalism, where male athletes are regularly prioritized in terms of both visibility and coverage. This imbalance not only limits the exposure of women athletes but also undermines their access to sponsorships, professional growth, and public recognition. Importantly, this problem is not confined to a specific region—it is a worldwide pattern reflecting the broader marginalization of women in sports media[8].

Stereotypes based on gender in sports media significantly deepen the existing inequality. Coverage of female athletes often centres on their appearance, personal lives, or emotional expressions, rather than highlighting their athletic abilities, achievements, and overall performance.

This kind of biased portrayal creates a distorted and narrow public perception of women in sports. Rather than being celebrated for their skill, dedication, and professionalism, female athletes are often depicted in ways that emphasize superficial qualities and personal stories, ultimately diminishing their status as serious and accomplished sports professionals[9].

Although female athletes have made remarkable strides—exemplified by the international triumphs of the U.S. Women’s Soccer Team—they still face a stark imbalance in media coverage compared to their male counterparts. Leading sports broadcasters, such as ESPN, allocate very limited airtime to women’s sports; for instance, in 2014, women were featured in only about 2% of SportsCenter segments. This disparity is also evident at the collegiate level, where women constitute over 40% of athletes but receive just 4% of media attention. Such underrepresentation hinders their visibility, reduces potential sponsorship deals, and perpetuates existing pay inequalities within the sports industry.

Media narratives frequently reinforce outdated gender stereotypes, often focusing on the physical appearance of female athletes rather than their athletic performance. Athletes are frequently criticized for either not fitting traditional feminine norms or being perceived as overly masculine. The same biases extend to women working in sports media, where appearance is often prioritized over professional ability, leading to widespread experiences of discrimination and harassment in predominantly male workplaces. Even after a 1977 court decision ensured female journalists equal access to locker rooms, many still encounter hostility and sexist behaviour.

Furthermore, the limited number of women in sports journalism—only about 10% cover sports—contributes to the overall lack of coverage of women’s athletic achievements. While there has been some progress in increasing women’s representation in sports media, many professionals in the field continue to report unequal compensation, insufficient institutional support, and a sense of being undervalued[10].

RECENT DEVELOPMENTS AND REFORMS

A combination of forward-looking legal reforms and persistent cultural and societal obstacles has shaped the journey toward gender equality in sports. Women, long underrepresented in competitive athletics, have made notable progress through key developments, such as their first appearance at the Olympic Games in 1900 and the landmark introduction of Title IX in the U.S. in 1972, which significantly advanced equal opportunities in sports. Women’s equality in sports has been supported by international legal instruments such as the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW) and the UNESCO Charter on Physical Education and Sport. The provisions of Articles 14, 15(3), and 21 of the Indian Constitution provide a solid basis for achieving gender equality. These regulations are further strengthened by proactive judicial involvement in cases of gender bias in sports. Despite these advancements, significant challenges remain, including unequal pay, limited representation of women in leadership roles, gender-biased media coverage, and poor infrastructure for female athletes. Nevertheless, recent strides—such as the U.S. Women’s Soccer Team’s victory in securing equal pay, the near gender parity at the Tokyo 2020 Olympics, and the global adoption of inclusive and protective policies by sports organizations—highlight ongoing progress. Still, achieving full gender equality in sports requires more than just legal enforcement; it calls for a broader cultural transformation that genuinely values and uplifts the contributions of women athletes.

A significant cultural change that affects all facets of society, both domestically and internationally, is necessary to achieve true gender equality in sports. Thanks in large part to marquee events like the FIFA Women’s World Cup, the WTA Tour, and the WNBA Finals, which have successfully drawn greater audiences, women’s sports have seen an increase in popularity and media attention in recent years. Prominent female athletes like Wilma Rudolph, Billie Jean King, Serena and Venus Williams, Nadia Comăneci, and Danica Patrick have been instrumental in elevating women’s sports while also confronting wider issues related to gender, race, and social inequality, often contributing to humanitarian causes as well. The growth of digital and social media platforms has allowed these athletes to engage directly with fans, broadening their influence and boosting the global visibility of women in sports. Significant progress has been made in closing gender disparities in policy, most notably through Agenda 2020 of the International Olympic Committee, which encourages more women to participate in the Olympic movement in a variety of roles supported by the Gender Equality Review Project. To direct strategic initiatives throughout the EU, the European Commission also established the High-Level Group on Gender Equality in Sport in 2019. In the fight for more equitable and truthful coverage of women in sports, campaigns like “SheIS” and “See Her” are equally crucial in dispelling preconceptions in traditional media and advertising. When taken as a whole, these initiatives represent important—though still developing—steps towards attaining gender equity in the sports industry[11].

CONCLUSION

True gender equality in sports is a challenging and continuing endeavour. National and international legal frameworks lay the groundwork, but sustained enforcement and significant cultural change are mostly responsible for their efficacy. Tennis stands out as a key example

of how gender equality can be advanced through a combination of legislative measures, effective media outreach, and significant financial investment. Similarly, the development of women’s football and other sports highlights the crucial role of collective bargaining, legal advocacy, and committed institutional involvement in reducing gender-based inequalities[12].

Organisations must implement targeted efforts, such as standardising prize money, expanding sponsorship access for female athletes, and encouraging equitable and significant media presence, to expand and maintain progress towards gender equity in the global sports arena. However, the continued influence of profit-oriented agendas, deep-rooted gender biases, and societal pushback often obstructs the full acknowledgment of women’s potential in sports.

Thus, lasting change requires more than just legal reforms; it demands a persistent dedication to inclusive daily practices and a fundamental transformation in the mindset of sports institutions, media portrayals, and societal attitudes[13].

To sum up, achieving gender equality in sports is still a difficult and continuous task. The promotion of equal rights has been firmly established by both national and international legal systems; nonetheless, their efficacy depends on their regular, practical implementation.

Commercial interests, long-standing cultural conventions, and gender biases continue to dominate the sports industry, making it difficult to properly acknowledge female athletes and their accomplishments. Therefore, daily activities and a significant cultural shift within media outlets, sporting organisations, and society at large are needed to encourage legal improvements. Gender equality in sports can only become a shared and concrete reality by cooperating and increasing public awareness[14].

REFERENCES

1. Francesco Ernesto Alessi Longa, Gender equality within the sports legal framework: A comprehensive analysis and future perspectives,25(01), WJARR,2025 https://doi.org/10.30574/wjarr.2025.25.1.0300
2. Dr. Shubhendu Mishra, The legal and ethical implications of gender discrimination and sexual harassment in sports, with a focus on India’s sports industry, Vol. 6 No. 1, ijis,2024 https://unijisedu.com/index.php/ijis/article/view/101
3. Ibid
4. Donna A. Lopiano, Modern History of Women in Sports: Twenty-five Years of Title IX, Volume 19, Issue 2, Clinics in Sports Medicine (2000) https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278- 5919(05)70196-4
5. Suchitra Akoijam, Participation level of Indian women in sports in National and International Arena, volume 5no.1, IJELLH, (2017) https://ijellh.com/index.php/OJS/article/view/1845
6. Francesco Ernesto Alessi Longa, Gender Equality Within The Sports Legal Framework: A Comprehensive Analysis and Future Perspectives, preprints.org (4 February 2025) https://www.preprints.org/manuscript/202501.1877/v2

• Ibid
• Sun Yingnan and Wang Guoliang, Gender Disparities in Sports Media Coverage: Phenomenon, Analysis, and Transformation, Vol. 5, Issue 9, Frontiers in Sport Research (2023) https://www.francis- press.com/uploads/papers/jORzGBukcSSiORBkHshtjf6FaumNqmIqkQe0fTxj.pdf
• Ibid
• Tess Hyre, Steve Chen, and Monica Larson, Perceptions Concerning Obstacles, Stereotypes and Discrimination Faced by Female Sports Reporters and Other Female Sports Professionals, Volume 4, Issue 3, Athens Journal of Sports,(2017) https://www.athensjournals.gr/sports/2017-4-3-4-Hyre.pdf
• Stan Cometta, The Evolution of Women in Sports and the Path Forward, Aists.org, (Nov 2023) https://aists.org/the-evolution-of-women-in-sports-and-the-path-forward/
• Francesco Ernesto Alessi Longa, Gender Equality within the Sports Legal Framework: A Comprehensive Analysis and Future Perspectives, vol. 13, no.2, OJSS, (2025) https://www.scirp.org/journal/paperinformation?paperid=140942
• Ibid
• Francesco Ernesto Alessi Longa, Gender equality within the sports legal framework: A comprehensive analysis and future perspectives,25(01), WJARR,2025 https://doi.org/10.30574/wjarr.2025.25.1.0300

[1] Francesco Ernesto Alessi Longa, Gender equality within the sports legal framework: A comprehensive analysis and future perspectives,25(01), WJARR,2025 https://doi.org/10.30574/wjarr.2025.25.1.0300

[2] Dr. Shubhendu Mishra, The legal and ethical implications of gender discrimination and sexual harassment in sports, with a focus on India’s sports industry, Vol. 6 No. 1, ijis,2024 https://unijisedu.com/index.php/ijis/article/view/101

[3] Ibid

[4] Donna A. Lopiano , modern history of women in sports: Twenty-five Years of Title IX, Volume 19, Issue 2, Clinics in Sports Medicine,(2000) https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-5919(05)70196-4

[5] Suchitra Akoijam, Participation level of Indian women in sports in National and International Arena, volume 5no.1, IJELLH, (2017) https://ijellh.com/index.php/OJS/article/view/1845

[6] Francesco Ernesto Alessi Longa, Gender Equality Within The Sports Legal Framework: A Comprehensive Analysis and Future Perspectives, preprints.org (4 February 2025)

[7] Ibid

[8] Sun Yingnan and Wang Guoliang, Gender Disparities in Sports Media Coverage: Phenomenon, Analysis, and Transformation, Vol. 5, Issue 9, Frontiers in Sport Research (2023) https://www.francis- press.com/uploads/papers/jORzGBukcSSiORBkHshtjf6FaumNqmIqkQe0fTxj.pdf

[9] Ibid

[10] Tess Hyre, Steve Chen, and Monica Larson, Perceptions Concerning Obstacles, Stereotypes and Discrimination Faced by Female Sports Reporters and Other Female Sports Professionals, Volume 4, Issue 3, Athens Journal of Sports,(2017) https://www.athensjournals.gr/sports/2017-4-3-4-Hyre.pdf

[11] Stan Cometta, The Evolution of Women in Sports and the Path Forward, Aists.org, (Nov 2023) https://aists.org/the-evolution-of-women-in-sports-and-the-path-forward/

[12] Francesco Ernesto Alessi Longa, Gender Equality within the Sports Legal Framework: A Comprehensive Analysis and Future Perspectives, vol. 13, no.2, OJSS, (2025) https://www.scirp.org/journal/paperinformation?paperid=140942

[13] Ibid

[14] Francesco Ernesto Alessi Longa, Gender equality within the sports legal framework: A comprehensive analysis and future perspectives,25(01), WJARR,2025 https://doi.org/10.30574/wjarr.2025.25.1.0300

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