THE LEGAL CHALLENGES OF PROTECTING INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY IN THE GLOBAL MARKET

This article is written by Khushboo Bharti of 2^nd Year of BALLB (Hons.) of Institute of Law, Jiwaji University, Gwalior, an intern under Legal Vidhiya

Abstract

The issue of IP protection for products in the international market can therefore be described as a major challenge that involves numerous interests and forces of governments, enterprises, and international law professionals. In this piece of abstract, it seeks to discuss the important legal dimensions in the protection of IP assets across borders with special emphasis on the rational for international synchronization of laws, the influence of technologies and the available legal redress for rights’ holders’. It also goes further explaining the problems arising from counterfeiting and piracy, the features of the emerging markets and the permanent demand for cooperation on the international level. Patents, trademarks, copyrights, and trade secrets, as the objects for legal protection, are vital for the development of innovations and the economy. Thus in the sphere of globalization the need to safeguard such values internationally becomes even more pressing. However, differences in the legislative systems, measures of protection, and the level of law enforcement as well as the development of new technologies remain serious challenges for a rather long time in the IP protection. In this paper, it was argued that there is a constant and dynamic struggle that occurs at the national and international level whose aim is to protect IP rights. Preservation of the property rights where the market is globalized is a complex and an ever-changing issue that requires holistic legal approach. That is why the proper component of global IP protection strategy includes the harmonization of IP laws, taking into consideration the progress in the field of digital technologies, and the development of an efficient enforcement mechanism. In order to deal with these challenges in laws, constant cooperation of international organizations and agencies, national governments, and the private sector to ensure that there is an appropriate environment for innovation for the protection of IPs across the globe. Thus, with globalization proceeding further to redesign the pattern of global economy, the search for efficient and fair treatment of IPR is a topical problem for the global practice.

Keywords

Intellectual property, IP rights, PAT, Copyrights, Trade secrets, legal rights, technology, protection, patents, arts.

Introduction^[1]

Protection of IP rights is instrumental in promoting innovation, and also a key component in economic development. PAT, which gives inventors, authors and businesses the unique right to their creations, acts a reward system encouraging creation of more innovations. However, one of the major legal issues arising in the context of global market is the protection of IP. The discussed challenges encompass jurisdictional issues, enforcement, international agreements, changes in technology, and the protection of IPRs as well as public domain. These are the subjects that this article explores and provides a cutout on the considerations that exist around the world in relation to I.P protection.

Intellectual property occupies an important place in modern law and is defined as ideas and concepts developed by the human mind in the form of inventions, literary and artistic works, designs, symbols, alphanumeric or graphic representations utilized in commerce. Through the lens of economics and science, IP is a foundation of invention and ideas, the boost of economy, and the improvement of society. It comprises the legal rights; Patents, trademarks, copyrights, and trade secrets; which enable inventors and creators to have legal protection over their inventions and works. The need to protect IP is justifiable based on the following factors. First, it stimulates creativity since inventors and artists are protected by law and can make their inventions and works patented, then recouping the costs of production. Second, it fosters competitiveness and economic growth through fresh entrants’ ability to safeguard their inventions and challenge incumbents. Third, it protects the consumer interest through quality and authenticity of products and service to be rendered to the market. Last but not the least, it promotes culture and science by preserving artworks and ideas and by providing incentives to share information.

IPR is an effective instrument for protecting the inventor/creator of an IP’s assets, including time, money, and effort, since it offers the inventor/creator an exclusive right to use his invention/creation for a certain length of time. Thus, intellectual property rights contribute to a country’s economic development by encouraging healthy competition, industrial progress, and economic prosperity. The present paper provides a brief summary of intellectual property rights, with a focus on medicines.

The Nature of Intellectual Property^[2]

Intellectual property refers to creations in letters, arts, business and industries that are protected by legal rights; These include patents, trademarks, Copyrights and Trade Secrets. Contemporary trademark law and copyright law are two forms of legal protection of IP where they have distinct rules across the jurisdictions. It is crucial to comprehend these differences when performing the tasks related to the protection of IP around the world.

• Patents: Patents are the legal protection on products of the human intellect for a limited period of 20 years from the date of filing mainly for the benefit of the inventor. They are very necessary, especially for promoting technological innovation by enabling the inventors recover their costs. Patents deal with a plethora of products related to medicines, technology and whatever humans can create and it offers legal protection against copying, manufacture and selling.
• Trademarks: Trademark is a legal right that gives protection to the owners of products and services in the market from imitators. They assist the consumer in determining the origin of the products and correspondingly, guarantee authenticity of the brands. Trademarks can indeed be renewed from time to time so long as the brand is being used in business; hence the protection is long term.
• Copyrights: Copyrights relate to literary and artistic works of the Low, such as books, music and software. It awards the copyright owners the control over the copying, distribution and performance of their works. Copyright normally applies for the life of the author plus 70 years thus enabling him/her to have full control on the creative works.
• Trade Secrets: Trade secrets refer to the ^[3]business information that is kept hidden from the public and competitors; it can be ideas, methods, and procedures. Unlike patents, trade secrets are not made public, thus adding more value especially in competition between companies. This form of protection for trade secrets can clearly go on and on without any end in near future so long as the information is kept secret.

Jurisdictional Conflicts^[4]

The problem of jurisdiction is among the most pressing and worrisome for IP owners and practitioners in the global protection of IP. What we know about IP laws is that they are territorial, and that is, the protection only covers the territory of the country, where the rights have been registered in terms of the legislation of that country. This ^[5]territoriality principle leads to several complications: This territoriality principle leads to several complications:

• Fragmented Protection: Managers are confronted with the application and enforcement of great variety of IP laws to provide legal shield in the targeted territory. This process is usually expensive and requires a lot of time, more so for the SMEs in the market. Finding IP protection in many of the countries that the product will be marketed is another legal and administratively expensive process.
• Inconsistent Standards: There are also differences in terms of the definition as well as the extent of the protection as well as enforcement of IP. Each country has its own set of rules that determines what is a patentable subject matter or trademark infringement and may not be compatible with a number of other countries resulting in a lot of legal limbo. While there are differences even in a common area, such as software patents, where the rules are set in the United States but are very different in Europe.
• Cross-Border Infringement: Pursuant to the question, cross-border infringement tends to be quite complicated. Two of the challenges are the legal doctrines that establish which country’s law should to be applied in a given situation and the enforcement of judgments in foreign countries. For example, such crimes as counterfeiting of products made in one country, and then imported into another, need the efforts of law enforcement in both countries.
• Forum Shopping: The litigants may also present the situation where they select the jurisdictions, they wish to have the case presided by, and this is referred to as forum shopping. Such practice leads to disparities in legal decisions, which is not favorable for clearing the litigation woes.

Enforcement Difficulties^[6]

That is why, even if the IP rights are established, the last step of enforcement is still rather problematic. This means that for the efficient protection of the rights of the owners of the economic goods, effective enforcement has to be achieved with a view of deterring the infringement of the rights. However, several factors complicate enforcement in the global market: However, several factors complicate enforcement in the global market:

• Resource Limitations^[7]: Due to economic and technical reasons many nations are not in a position to enforce the IP laws properly. This is particularly so if the IP enforcement may not be too much of a concern especially in the developing nations. Lack of funding in IP offices, lack of expertise, and inadequate technology pull the enforcement backward.
• Counterfeit and Piracy: Counterfeiting of products and digital piracy remains a growing threat to owners of IPRs. These activities are normally accelerated through complex networks that are global in nature thus making their enforcement a herculean task. From apparels and accessories, electronics, watches and jewelries, cigarettes and liquor, software, DVDs and video games, cars, and even pharmaceuticals, not only are the creators of these products suffering but also the consumers.
• Judicial Inconsistencies^[8]: Comparing different countries it is possible to understand that the differences in systems and practices may cause inequality in enforcement. Due to the varying stances adopted by the various countries, its courts might reach a decision that is unpredictable and /or contradictory to that of another. It also has the effect of creating inconsistent decisions; a result of the fact that there are some jurisdictions where there are no specialized IP courts.
• Cost of Litigation: Pecuniary losses incurred by dominant firms in legal actions may make rights holders opt out on enforcement actions, particularly across borders. Legal costs, costs associated with the courts the high likelihood of legal proceedings deter SMEs from ensuring that their IP rights are respected.
• Online Infringement: New problems have emerged in connection with the protection of IP due to the development of the internet. Counterfeiting and piracy, online selling of imitation products and products, and infringement of copyrights on the social media and other digital platforms, demand new methods of combating.

International Agreements and Harmonization

Due to the difficulties encountered in the protection of IP rights globally, several conventions and bodies have been formed with the goals of synchronizing national laws on intellectual property and establishing international collaboration. Key agreements include:

• The Paris Convention: The Paris Convention was established in 1883 as a means by which countries can orchestrate themselves in the giving out of patents and trademarks. It entails that an application can be filed in a bid to get protection in more than one member country at once. The Convention also contains provisions on priority rights, that allows an applicant to affirm priority in the basis of earlier filing date in another member country.
• The Berne Convention: The Berne Convention – this is the name of the Convention adopted in 1886 and covering the issues of protection of literary and artistic works. It affords to the members the same treatment to the works which originated from one country as it affords in the home country.
• The Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS):TRIPS came into force in January 1995 and is being administered by the World Trade Organization (WTO) and is one of the most comprehensive international agreements on intellectual property. It provides the minimum requirements for the protection and assertion of IPs that WTO member states have to uphold. As for the dispute resolution and enforcement measures, there are also provisions in TRIPS.
• In contrast, the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO):WIPO is a specialized body of the United Nations tasked with overseeing the global protection of intellectual property. The organization implements several vital global conventions and assists member states by offering expertise. WIPO also provides international services of patents, trademarks and Industrial designs registration.
• The Patent Cooperation Treaty (PCT):The PCT which is governed by WIPO makes the process of filing patent applications parallel in different countries easier. If an applicant files a single international application, he or she can obtain a patent protection in more than one hundred and fifty contracting states.
• The Madrid System: WIPO also has the Madrid System that enables the registration of trademarks in many jurisdictions at an instance. This system assists the trademark owners who want to protect their trademarks abroad.

The Role of Technology

Technology has played a dual role in the management of protection of IP in the global market in the sense that it has provided a platform on which this process can be done but at the same time it has made it quite difficult. The digital age has introduced new challenges and opportunities for IP enforcement: The digital age has introduced new challenges and opportunities for IP enforcement:

• Digital Piracy: In certain cases, the internet has assisted in the dissemination of copyrighted materials without proper authorization. A common secondary type of electronic crime is digital piracy which persists as a problem in the entertainment and software sectors, in particular. TV Series, peer-to-peer networks and file-sharing programs contribute to the illegal sharing of copyrighted works.
• E-commerce: This is particularly because through the prevailing e-commerce platforms it has become easier for fake products to find their way into the market. Sellers need to be barred from the marketplaces where they are selling the IP infringed products or services since the online marketplaces fail in the provision of adequate means of monitoring their platforms. The voluminous nature of transactions and the geographical accessibility of e-commerce sites are major enforcement issues.
• Blockchain and AI: Blockchain and AI as the example of the emerging technology are already being considered to provide opportunities in IP protection. Blockchain can create the traces of ownership of IP rights and AI can help in identification and prevention of the violation of those rights. For example, by using a technique such as AI image recognition one is likely to spot fakes goods in e-commerce-related sites.
• Digital Rights Management (DRM):DRM is a set of technical measures applied to prevent illegitimate access to the digital content. These technologies entail; encryption, digital water marking, and access controls. Typically, DRM is implemented in the industries of music, film, and software.
• Big Data and Analytics: This case suggests that big data and analytics to help improve IP enforcement by learning patterns of infringement and subsequent violation. Business entities and enforcement agencies will also benefit from data analysis since it will lead them to the right course in defending rights.

Case Studies

Studying several instances can help to get a better understanding of the peculiarities of the protection of IPs on the international level. Here are a few notable examples: Here are a few notable examples:

• Apple vs. Samsung^[9]:Continuing with examples of challenges related to global enforcement of IP rights, it is vital to indicate the legal struggles between Apple and Samsung in relation to patents protecting smartphones. Companies have also used litigation in some of the countries with different results. These cases are among the challenges that touch on patent validity, infringement and the internationalization of technology markets.
• Alibaba and Counterfeit Goods^[10]: Alibaba, a popular global site for buying and selling of products through the internet has been accused of selling fake products. It has taken some measures to prevent counterfeiting but the fight is still on because the company is very big. Measures taken are comprised in increased scrutiny of users and sellers, cooperation with the rights owners, and integration with police bodies.
• Pharmaceutical Patents in India: ^[11]pharmaceutical patents and available medicines has put India at the Centre of the international controversy. Little has been said about the effects of the country’s patents concerning generic medicines manufacturing in the health sector. The 2013 ruling in Novartis AG v. Union of India by the Indian Supreme Court centers on the patentability of ever-greening patents pertaining to incremental advancements, particularly in the pharmaceutical industry.

The Global Context: Regional Perspectives^[12]

1. United States: It has a very sound IP protection structure owing to enforcement of IP laws coupled with the USCA Federal Circuit. There are two agencies in the United States through which rights in intellectual property is granted and also monitored and they are the U. S. Patent and Trademark Office (USPTO) and the United States. Copyright Office. Though when talking about The U. S. , the challenges are associated with digital piracy, counterfeiting as well as the proper balance of protection of IPRs and inventions.
2. European Union: Currently, the European Union or EU has developed major achievements in coordinating the national laws governing the IP. Two agencies that deal with patent and trademarks in Europe are the European Patent Office (EPO) and the EU Intellectual Property Office (EUIPO). One of the strategies that the EU has launched under the Digital Single Market strategy is to fight technological piracy and improve IP protection. However, the EU same still faces challenges of jurisdiction and the leaving of Britain from the EU on protection of IP rights.
3. China: China has emerged as the preeminent country of interest for international IP debates because of the country’s fast-growing economy and notorious history of piracy and counterfeiting. The Chinese government P has worked on efforts to enhance the protection of IP since then, including: The formation of the specialized IP courts and the launching of stronger enforcement means. Thus, it can be noted that while China has adopted the legal regulation of the foreign investment, often foreign companies encounter difficulties in enforcing the legislation and may experience inconsistency in actions taken within this state.
4. India: The overall Indian IP laws have evolved a lot and more so the IP laws related to pharmaceutical patents. Australia has been torn between IP rights and public health concerns hence arguing over issues to do with compulsory license and affordable health products. India’s commitment towards enhancing the protection of IPRs persists; however, several factors including resource constraints and the efficiency of the judiciary affect this progress.
5. Developing Countries: Some of the factors which characterize the protection of IP rights in many developing countries are also characterized by the following challenges. Lack of funds, poor awareness, and other demands can decrease the enforcement levels. WIPO and other international organizations offer technical cooperation and capacity-building programs to these aforementioned nations for establishment of developed legal frameworks for the protection of IP assets.

The Impact of International Trade and Investment

1. Trade Agreements: The international trade refers to the manner in which countries protect the intellectual property rights through trade agreements around the world. Trade treaties such as NAFTA and USMCA signed between USA, Mexico and Canada contain sections that relate to the protection and enforcement of IPRs. The purpose of such agreements is to bring into conformity and closely coordinate the activities.
2. Investor-State Dispute Settlement (ISDS): Through ISDS mechanisms, investors are able to bring claims against any action by the members’ government that is in violation of any international investment agreements that touch on IP. Although ISDS can be advantageous to the IP rights holder, it has however raised controversy concerning the proportionality of investor protection and state sovereignty.
3. Global Supply Chains: Outsourcing of products considered as a component of global supply chain is another factor affecting the issue of IP protection. Manufacturers have to protect their IP during different stages of production that can be in several countries. It is a fact that the probability of threats associated with IP theft and counterfeiting rises with the complexity and globalization of the supply chain.

The Balance Between IP Protection and Public Access

1. Access to Medicines: The debate over pharmaceutical patents and access to medicines exemplifies the tension between IP protection and public health. High medication prices due to patent protection might limit access to important medicines, especially in underdeveloped nations. Compulsory licensing and patent pools are mechanisms that aim to balance these interests by allowing the production of generic drugs under certain conditions.
2. Open Source and Creative Commons: The open-source software movement and Creative Commons licensing offer alternative models for IP management. These approaches promote collaboration and sharing while providing creators with control over how their works are used. They challenge traditional notions of IP by emphasizing access and innovation over exclusive rights.
3. Educational and Research Use: IP laws often include exceptions and limitations to facilitate educational and research activities. Fair use doctrines, research exemptions, and open access initiatives aim to ensure that IP protection does not hinder academic and scientific progress. Balancing these exceptions with the rights of IP holders remains a critical issue Future Directions
4. Access to Medicines: The controversy with regard to pharmaceutical patents and availability of medicines is a perfect illustration of the clash between, IP rights and public interests. Protecting patness through patents works to increase the cost of the drugs that are available in the market thus reducing the availability of essential drugs, especially in the third world country. The licensing and patent pools are strategies that are tried to be set up to moderate those interests and enable the production of the generic drugs under certain circumstances.
5. Open Source and Creative Commons: The management of IP can be done with the help of open-source software movement and Creative Commons licensing. These approaches encourage cooperation and interoperability while giving the creators specific manner of usage of their works. They question proprietary strategies of IP by stressing on both availability and use rather than ownership
6. Educational and Research Use: Even so, the IP laws may contain provisions of the exceptions and limitations with regard to education and research. Still, fair use doctrines, research exemptions, and open access initiatives are geared towards the goal of preventing the stifling of the academic and scientific advancement by IP rights. Maintaining this exception to counterbalance the rights of the IP holders is still a challenge.
7. Adaptation to Digital Markets: With markets becoming digital, and as the trends continue to grow, the laws pertaining to IP and enforcement have to evolve as well. Such phenomena as piracy, online sales platforms, and DRM technologies can be solved only by inventing peculiar legal and technological interventions. Therefore, international cooperation and the development of standards will be critical.
8. Corporate Responsibility: However, they cannot act independently but companies also have a part to play in the protection of the intellectual property and fighting of infringement. Thus, CSR policies and practices can encompass issues related to clean and ethical supply chain, protection of relevant assets, as well as cooperation with the enforcement authorities. It is also possible to enhance the protection of business ideas through technological and other measures that decrease the likelihood of losses from IP violations.
9. Public Awareness and Education: Promoting the public’s understanding of the significance of IP protection and establishing awareness of their rights and correspondingly, responsibilities among the stakeholders would go a long way in the enforcement process. Thus it is possible to have the governments, sources such as the international organizations, and the industry groups to join in the development of awareness campaigns as well as the training programs.

Conclusion

Prevailing legal issues appear when protecting intellectual property in the global market. Some of the main challenges which rights holders are facing are jurisdictional conflicts, enforcement problems, the requirement of cross-border cooperation, as well as consideration of new technologies. With the increasing sophistication of international conventions, advanced technology, and cooperation, there are possibilities of improving the IP protection system in the globe. Thus, with facing these challenges and with the help of new instruments, the world community could develop an environment that will contribute effectively to the encouragement of innovations and creative potential using at the same time the opportunities provided by the international IP rights protection systems. The complex relationship of IP protection and the public’s right of access to the same will remain a crucial aspect that will need constant debate as well as formulating ways and means as the global markets continue to shift.

References

1. WIPO Magazine, The challenge of protecting intellectual property https://www.wipo.int/wipo_magazine/en/2016/si/article_0004.html visited on 23/07/2024
2. Mode 5 nature of  intellectual property GN institute of Technology pdf visited on 23/07/2024
3. Types of Intellectual Property Rights (IPRs) https://blog.ipleaders.in/ipr-description/ visited on 23/07/2024
4. IP rights enforcement in India https://www.lexology.com/library/detail.aspx?g=1143b688-c01c-41c2-b38f-86cdeaf328bc#:~:text=Under%20the%20Code%20of%20Civil,business%2C%20or%20personally%20works%20for visited on 23/07/2024
5. Jurisdiction in Intellectual Property Disputes https://ojs.journalsdg.org/jlss/article/view/2759#:~:text=Result%3A%20Determining%20the%20jurisdiction%20of,through%20objective%20or%20personal%20controls visited on 23/07/2024
6. Problems in International Protection of Intellectual Property Rights https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1069031X9600400103?icid=int.sj-abstract.similar-articles.8 visited on 23/07/2024
7. Limits And Duration of Intellectual Property Rights https://letranlaw.com/insights/limits-and-duration-of-intellectual-property-rights/#:~:text=Limited%20intellectual%20property%20rights%20have,reducing%20losses%20for%20business%20entities visited on 23/07/2024
8. WIPO MAGAZINE- A closer look at specialized intellectual property courts https://www.wipo.int/wipo_magazine/en/2019/03/article_0005.html visited on 23/07/2024
9. Apple vs Samsung Copyright Case, https://bytescare.com/blog/apple-vs-samsung-copyright-case#:~:text=What%20was%20the%20Apple%20vs,of%20its%20wireless%20technology%20patents visited on 23/07/2024
10. Corsearch.com, Protecting Your Brand: How to Remove Counterfeits from Alibaba, https://corsearch.com/content-library/blog/protecting-your-brand-how-to-remove-counterfeits-from-alibaba/#:~:text=Intellectual%20property%20rights%20are%20defined,design%20right%20infringement%20on%20Alibaba visited on 23/07/2024
11. What are intellectual property rights? https://www.onlinemanipal.com/blogs/intellectual-property-rights-in-pharmaceutical-industry#:~:text=For%2020%20years%20following%20the,%2C%20develop%2C%20and%20safeguard%20inventions visited on 23/07/2024
12. Global Intellectual Property Rights Issues in Perspective: A Concluding Panel Discussion, ROBERT E. EVENSON, National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 1993. Global Dimensions of Intellectual Property Rights in Science and Technology. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. https://doi.org/10.17226/2054.https://nap.nationalacademies.org/read/2054/chapter/32 visited on 23/07/2024
13. Intellectual property rights https://tradecouncil.org/the-impact-of-intellectual-property-rights-on-international-trade/#:~:text=Intellectual%20property%20rights%20are%20essential,transfer%2C%20and%20support%20trade%20relations. visited on 23/07/2024
14. Striking a balance between IP rights and open access initiativeshttps://ttconsultants.com/striking-a-balance-between-ip-rights-and-open-access-initiatives/ visited on 23/07/2024
15. Striking A Balance Between Intellectual Property Rights And Human Rights In The Era Of Technology And Innovation https://www.livelaw.in/lawschool/articles/intellectual-property-rights-human-rights-technology-and-innovation-252986
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17. Types of Intellectual Property Rights (IPRs) https://blog.ipleaders.in/ipr-description/ visited on 23/07/2024

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^[1] WIPO Magazine- The challenge of protecting intellectual property https://www.wipo.int/wipo_magazine/en/2016/si/article_0004.html visited on 23/07/2024

^[2] Mode 5 nature of  intellectual property GN institute of Technology pdf visited on 23/07/2024

^[3] Types of Intellectual Property Rights (IPRs)

https://blog.ipleaders.in/ipr-description/visited on 23/07/2024

^[4] IP rights enforcement in India https://www.lexology.com/library/detail.aspx?g=1143b688-c01c-41c2-b38f-86cdeaf328bc#:~:text=Under%20the%20Code%20of%20Civil,business%2C%20or%20personally%20works%20for visited on 23/07/2024

^[5] Jurisdiction in Intellectual Property Disputes https://ojs.journalsdg.org/jlss/article/view/2759#:~:text=Result%3A%20Determining%20the%20jurisdiction%20of,through%20objective%20or%20personal%20controls visited on 23/07/2024

^[6] Problems in International Protection of Intellectual Property Rights  https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1069031X9600400103?icid=int.sj-abstract.similar-articles.8 visited on 23/07/2024

^[7] Limits And Duration of Intellectual Property Rights https://letranlaw.com/insights/limits-and-duration-of-intellectual-property-rights/#:~:text=Limited%20intellectual%20property%20rights%20have,reducing%20losses%20for%20business%20entities visited on 23/07/2024

^[8] Wipo magazine A closer look at specialized intellectual property courts https://www.wipo.int/wipo_magazine/en/2019/03/article_0005.html visited on 23/07/2024

^[9] Apple vs Samsung Copyright Case https://bytescare.com/blog/apple-vs-samsung-copyright-case#:~:text=What%20was%20the%20Apple%20vs,of%20its%20wireless%20technology%20patents visited on 23/07/2024

^[10] Corsearch.com, Protecting Your Brand: How to Remove Counterfeits from Alibaba

https://corsearch.com/content-library/blog/protecting-your-brand-how-to-remove-counterfeits-from-alibaba/#:~:text=Intellectual%20property%20rights%20are%20defined,design%20right%20infringement%20on%20Alibaba visited on 23/07/2024

^[11] What are intellectual property rights? https://www.onlinemanipal.com/blogs/intellectual-property-rights-in-pharmaceutical-industry#:~:text=For%2020%20years%20following%20the,%2C%20develop%2C%20and%20safeguard%20inventions visited on 23/07/2024

^[12]Global Intellectual Property Rights Issues in Perspective: A Concluding Panel Discussion, ROBERT E. EVENSON, National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 1993. Global Dimensions of Intellectual Property Rights in Science and Technology. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. https://doi.org/10.17226/2054.https://nap.nationalacademies.org/read/2054/chapter/32 visited on 23/07/2024

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