This article is written by Sonali Patade of 2nd Semester of Jitendra Chauhan College of Law, an intern under Legal Vidhiya
ABSTRACT
As drug abuse continues to challenge societies globally, India faces significant prevalence rates among adults and youth for substances such as alcohol, cannabis, opioids, and sedatives. The Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances (NDPS) Act of 1985 represents India’s legislative response to combat this pervasive issue, intertwining legal mandates with cultural considerations. This article explores how cultural dimensions shape drug use patterns and influence responses to enforcement and rehabilitation efforts under the NDPS Act. It highlights the Act’s adaptability in updating controlled substances and addresses critiques regarding punitive measures and societal stigmas associated with addiction. By integrating cultural insights, policymakers can develop more effective strategies that balance enforcement with public health initiatives, fostering a healthier and more culturally sensitive approach to drug regulation in India.
Keywords
Drug abuse, NDPS Act, cultural dimensions, enforcement, public health, substance use patterns
INTRODUCTION
As we confront the challenges of the 21st century, drug abuse remains a significant global issue impacting individuals, families, and communities worldwide. The consumption of drugs continues to rise unabated, driven by a complex interplay of social, economic, and psychological factors. In India, recent surveys underscore the pervasive nature of this problem, revealing alarming prevalence rates among both adults and youth across various psychoactive substances.
According to the National Survey on Extent and Pattern of Substance Use conducted by the Ministry through NDDTC, AIIMS in 2018, adults aged 18-75 years exhibit concerning prevalence rates for substances such as alcohol (17.10%), cannabis (3.30%), opioids (2.10%), sedatives (1.21%), and others. The estimated number of adult users ranges dramatically, highlighting the widespread impact of substance abuse within the adult population.[1]
Similarly, among children and adolescents aged 10-17 years, significant percentages engage in substance use, including alcohol (1.30%), cannabis (0.90%), opioids (1.80%), and inhalants (1.17%). These figures underscore the early onset and pervasive nature of substance abuse among youth, posing long-term risks to public health and societal stability.[2]
The Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances (NDPS) Act, enacted in 1985, stands as India’s legislative cornerstone to combat the pervasive threat posed by illicit drugs. This legislation reflects a proactive approach aimed at regulating and controlling narcotics while addressing the cultural dimensions that influence substance use patterns. Culture plays a pivotal role in shaping societal attitudes towards drugs and addiction, influencing both consumption behaviors and responses to enforcement and rehabilitation efforts.[3]
Understanding these cultural dimensions is crucial for developing effective policies that strike a balance between enforcement measures and public health initiatives. Culturally sensitive approaches are essential in shaping prevention, treatment, and rehabilitation strategies under the NDPS Act, ensuring they resonate with diverse societal norms and values.
WHAT IS DRUG ABUSE?
Drug abuse or substance abuse refers to the use of certain chemicals for the purpose of creating pleasurable effects on the brain.[4] The excessive, maladaptive, or addictive use of these substances for nonmedical purposes which can cause potential social, psychological, and physical consequences. The spectrum of abused substances includes a wide range, from anabolic steroids used to enhance athletic performance, which can lead to serious health issues like heart disease and liver damage, to psychotropic agents that alter mental states to induce changes in mood, perception, and sensation.[5]
Historically, substances like opium and alcohol have been discovered for their mood-altering effects and subsequently integrated into various societal practices. Despite their social acceptance in certain cultures, the misuse of these substances has profound consequences, primarily stemming from dependence—the compulsive need to continue using a drug despite deteriorating health or social functioning. This dependence can manifest as physical, psychological, or both, with physical dependence often characterized by withdrawal symptoms upon cessation of drug intake.[6]
Tolerance is another significant phenomenon associated with drug abuse, where repeated use of a substance diminishes its effectiveness, necessitating higher doses to achieve the desired effect. Addiction, often used interchangeably with dependence, specifically refers to substances known to cause physical dependency.[7]
SOCIO-ECONOMIC FACTORS INFLUENCING DRUG ABUSE
The use of psychoactive substances is often associated with socioeconomic factors. Hence understanding the intricate relationship between Socio-economic status (SES) and drug abuse is crucial for developing effective prevention and treatment strategies. While drug addiction is a complex issue influenced by myraid of factors, SES plays a significant role in determining an individual’s risk for substance abuse and their ability to access treatment. From the heightened availability of alcohol in higher-income groups to pervasive stress and limited resources in lower income communities, socio-economic factors shape the landscape of addiction in profound ways.[8]
- Socioeconomic Status and Substance Use
Socioeconomic status (SES) is a significant factor in drug and alcohol use. For individuals with higher levels of education and income, access to alcohol can be increased by various variables, making drinking a routine part of the lifestyle. Those with alcohol use disorders (AUD) are more likely to use illegal drugs or misuse prescription drugs. A barrier to treatment for this group can be the need to avoid harmful publicity related to substance use. [9]
- Alcohol Abuse and Socioeconomic Status
Having more financial resources and security often means greater access to alcohol. Professional positions, where money is not an issue, can contribute to frequent alcohol consumption, whether in work-related activities or socializing after hours. The expectation that drinking is part of the work culture can also be a significant influencer. Celebrations of achievements and victories often involve alcohol, making it seem unavoidable.[10]
- Progression from Alcohol Abuse to Illicit Drug Abus
Substance abusers often misuse both alcohol and drugs. Individuals who abuse alcohol are more likely to misuse illegal drugs, such as cocaine or heroin, and prescription drugs. For those in higher SES with a long-term drinking problem, the risk of developing new addictions increases.[11]
- Socioeconomic Status and Prescription Opioid Abuse
Opioid abuse tends to be more prevalent in groups with lower income and education levels. However, professionals prescribed opioids for chronic pain are also at risk of addiction. High doses and prolonged use can lead to opioid addiction across all population groups.[12]
- Employment and Job Stress
High-stress jobs, common among higher SES groups, can contribute to substance abuse as a coping mechanism. The pressure to perform and the availability of substances in professional environments can increase risk.
- Mental Health
Individuals from any SES can experience mental health issues that co-occur with substance abuse. However, those in lower SES groups may have less access to mental health services, exacerbating their addiction problems.
- Social Networks
Social environments play a crucial role in substance use behavior. Peer pressure and the normalization of substance use within social circles can influence both the initiation and continuation of substance abuse.
- Access to Support Service
Lower SES groups may have limited access to support services, such as counseling and rehabilitation programs, due to financial constraints and lack of availability in their communities.
HISTORICAL AND CULTURAL SIGNIFICANCE OF DRUG USE IN INDIA
The history of cannabis and opium use in India spans centuries and reflects a rich tapestry of medicinal, cultural, and religious practices. Cannabis has traditionally been utilized for treating ailments such as rheumatism, migraine, and malaria, while also serving to relax nerves, restore appetite, and promote general well-being. It holds significant religious significance as a gift from Lord Shiva in Hindu mythology and has been integral to religious and shamanistic rituals. Industrially, cannabis provides food grain, oil seeds, and fibers. The introduction of contemporary drug control legislation in 1985 and subsequent amendments in 2001 aimed to regulate these substances for medical use but also restricted their availability through legal channels. This shift has forced traditional medicinal practitioners to turn to the illegal market to obtain sufficient quantities, as legal avenues became increasingly constrained. Opium, similarly valued for its medicinal properties and cultural significance among groups like the Rajputs, has also been affected by these regulatory changes, leading to a dual impact on both substances’ availability and usage in India.[13]
BACKGROUND OF THE NDPS ACT AND ITS NECESSITY
India had no laws regulating narcotics until 1985 when the Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances (NDPS) Act was enacted. The historical context of narcotics use in India is significant, as the smoking of cannabis has been mentioned in the Atharva Veda and its recreational use was widely accepted in society, comparable to alcohol consumption. Until the NDPS Act came into force, cannabis and its derivatives like hashish, marijuana, and bhang were sold legally.[14]
- Treaty Obligations and International Pressure
The primary impetus for the NDPS Act was to fulfill India’s treaty obligations under various international conventions. India is a signatory to the Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs (1961), the Convention on Psychotropic Substances (1971), and the United Nations Convention Against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances (1988). These treaties require member countries to implement measures to control and regulate the production, distribution, and consumption of narcotic drugs and psychotropic substances. The NDPS Act brought India in line with global efforts to combat drug abuse and illicit trafficking.[15]
- Socio-Economic Impact of Drug Abuse
Drug abuse in India represents a significant socio-economic challenge. The availability and misuse of narcotic drugs and psychotropic substances contribute to various social issues, including crime, family disruption, and loss of productivity. The government recognized that unregulated access to these substances exacerbated these problems, necessitating legal intervention.[16]
KEY OBJECTIVES OF THE NDPS ACT
- Control and Regulation: The NDPS Act aims to control and regulate the manufacture, distribution, and consumption of narcotic drugs and psychotropic substances. By establishing strict guidelines and penalties, the Act seeks to reduce the availability of these substances for non-medical and non-scientific purposes.[17]
- Prevention of Illicit Trafficking: The Act includes provisions to prevent illicit trafficking of narcotic drugs and psychotropic substances. It empowers law enforcement agencies to take stringent action against offenders involved in the illegal trade of these substances.[18]
- Treatment and Rehabilitation: Recognizing that drug addiction is a health issue, the NDPS Act emphasizes the need for treatment and rehabilitation of drug addicts. It promotes the establishment of rehabilitation centers and encourages the reintegration of recovered individuals into society
- Public Health Concerns: Beyond socio-economic issues, drug abuse poses significant public health risks. The spread of infectious diseases, such as HIV/AIDS and hepatitis, is often linked to the sharing of needles among drug users. The NDPS Act addresses these concerns by promoting harm reduction strategies and safe practices.[19]
- Youth and Vulnerable Populations: The Act is particularly important in protecting vulnerable populations, especially the youth, from falling prey to drug addiction. By limiting access to narcotics and psychotropic substances, the Act aims to safeguard future generations from the dangers of substance abuse.
- Economic Stability: Illicit drug trade has far-reaching economic implications, including the diversion of financial resources into criminal activities and undermining the economic stability of communities. The NDPS Act seeks to curb these activities, thereby contributing to overall economic stability and development.
- International Reputation: Implementing the NDPS Act also helped India bolster its international reputation as a responsible member of the global community committed to combating drug abuse and illicit trafficking. This alignment with international norms and standards was crucial for diplomatic and economic relations.
BALANCING LEGAL ENFORCEMENT AND CULTURAL SENSITIVITY
The NDPS Act serves as a formidable legal framework designed to regulate the production, trafficking, and consumption of narcotic drugs and psychotropic substances within India. However, its application has increasingly intersected with socio-cultural dimensions, leading to significant concerns regarding its misuse against political opponents and marginalized communities. [20]
Political opponents have frequently found themselves targeted under the NDPS Act, often in situations perceived as politically motivated. For instance, in 2011, the Gujarat government’s use of the NDPS Act to detain opposition leaders, including Jignesh Mevani, was widely criticized as an attempt to suppress dissent rather than uphold drug control measures. These arrests, though ultimately overturned by the courts, underscore the Act’s susceptibility to politicization.[21]
Similarly, marginalized communities have faced discriminatory application of the NDPS Act. In 2018, a police raid in Manipur targeted a village predominantly inhabited by the Meitei community, resulting in several arrests on drug trafficking charges. The community viewed these actions as discriminatory, exacerbating existing socio-economic vulnerabilities rather than addressing drug-related issues effectively.[22]
The broad and discretionary nature of the NDPS Act contributes significantly to its potential for misuse. Law enforcement’s wide-ranging powers under the Act allow them considerable latitude in targeting individuals perceived as threats to government interests or societal norms. Furthermore, the Act’s severe penalties, including the possibility of death for drug trafficking, create a climate of fear among those accused, deterring many from challenging wrongful charges even when innocent.[23]
The misuse of the NDPS Act undermines the rule of law and violates the fundamental rights of those affected, highlighting the urgent need for reform and oversight. Specific measures could include amending the Act to narrow its scope and reduce discretionary powers, establishing independent oversight mechanisms to monitor its application, providing comprehensive training to law enforcement on proper implementation, and raising public awareness about the potential for abuse inherent in its current form.[24]
Addressing these issues is crucial not only to ensure fair and effective drug control but also to uphold constitutional principles of justice and equality for all citizens. By taking proactive steps to prevent misuse, the government can enhance trust in law enforcement and safeguard against arbitrary targeting based on political affiliation or social status.[25]
CASE STUDY ANALYSIS
The Cultural Context of Cannabis Cultivation in Himachal Pradesh
In a notable criminal case observed in Mandi District, Himachal Pradesh, the intricacies of cannabis cultivation intersected with local culture, public policy, and judicial proceedings. Historically, cannabis cultivation was authorized during the colonial era but became criminalized in independent India under the Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances Act (NDPS Act) of 1985, reflecting national and international commitments. Despite this legislation, the local populace, particularly in regions like the Himalayas, continued to view cannabis cultivation as a traditional practice integral to religious ceremonies, medicinal preparations, and artisanal crafts such as making shoes, bags, and ropes. [26]
The case involved a raid by the Narcotics Control Bureau in a village known for cannabis production, which sparked resistance from villagers who saw it as an attack on their livelihood and cultural heritage. Villagers argued that cannabis cultivation was sanctioned by their deity, Jamlu devta, further embedding it within their cultural and religious practices. This sentiment was echoed by local leaders and villagers during court proceedings, challenging the criminalization of a practice deeply rooted in their community’s identity.[27]
Inside the courtroom, the prosecution relied on testimony from local authorities and police, including the patwari (revenue officer), to substantiate their case against an accused villager. However, crucial inconsistencies emerged during witness testimonies. Villagers, initially aligned with police statements, later recanted their accounts in court, asserting joint ownership of the land where cannabis was found and denying involvement in its cultivation. This shift marked them as “hostile witnesses,” a term used to denote contradictions with their earlier statements made to police.[28]
Legal proceedings highlighted systemic issues in police investigations, particularly lapses in land demarcation and procedural errors that undermined the prosecution’s case. The defense capitalized on these discrepancies, arguing that the prosecution failed to meet the burden of proof required by law. The judge, citing “the ratio of the law,” emphasized the importance of accurate land demarcation and consistent witness testimony. Ultimately, the accused was acquitted due to insufficient evidence and the contradictions within witness statements.[29]
This case underscores the complex dynamics between public policy, cultural practices, and judicial interpretation. It illustrates how local cultural beliefs can influence legal outcomes, challenging the enforcement of national drug laws in regions where cannabis holds deep cultural and economic significance. The low conviction rate in cannabis cultivation cases in Himachal Pradesh reflects judicial sensitivity to local contexts and challenges in enforcing laws that conflict with deeply rooted traditions and community identities.[30]
THE IMPACT OF THE NDPS ACT ON SOCIETAL NORMS AND LEGAL FRAMEWORKS
The Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances (NDPS) Act holds profound cultural significance as it navigates the complex intersection of societal norms, individual behaviors, and legal frameworks concerning drug use. One of its notable strengths lies in its adaptability, allowing for timely updates to the list of controlled substances based on evolving societal and medical understandings. This flexibility underscores its responsiveness to cultural shifts and emerging drug trends, crucial for effective regulation and public health protection.[31]
However, the Act’s approach to enforcement and penalties reflects broader cultural attitudes towards drug use, often characterized by punitive measures that disregard the nuanced contexts of substance consumption. Critics argue that the Act’s stringent provisions, such as the presumption of guilt and harsh sentencing, disproportionately affect marginalized communities and perpetuate social stigmas associated with addiction.[32]
From a cultural perspective, the NDPS Act’s impact extends beyond legal ramifications to shape public discourse and attitudes towards drug policy. It influences perceptions of addiction, criminality, and individual rights, prompting ongoing debates about the balance between public health concerns and civil liberties. Moreover, its implementation reflects societal values regarding rehabilitation versus punishment, highlighting the need for culturally sensitive approaches that prioritize holistic health outcomes and social equity.[33]
POLICY RECOMMENDATIONS
Looking ahead, the effective implementation of the NDPS Act must consider its cultural dimensions to regulate drug production, trafficking, and consumption in Indian society. Beyond legal enforcement, cultural sensitivities play a crucial role in shaping how policies are applied and perceived.
- Ensuring the quality of drugs used for medical purposes is paramount and must be approached with cultural sensitivity.[34] Medical practices and traditional remedies deeply rooted in Indian culture should be respected and differentiated from illicit substances to avoid misconceptions and ensure proper regulation.
- Maintaining accurate data on drug addicts and collaborating with various cultural organizations is essential.[35] These organizations often have unique insights into community dynamics and can play a pivotal role in implementing effective prevention and rehabilitation programs tailored to cultural contexts.
- Enhancing coordination among states is crucial for effective investigation and prosecution of drug-related crimes. This includes distinguishing synthetic drugs from natural substances, which aids in targeted enforcement efforts while respecting cultural practices involving natural remedies and substances.[36]
- Transparency in policy implementation is vital for fostering trust and accountability within communities.[37] Clear communication and openness can mitigate suspicions of bias or arbitrary enforcement, promoting compliance and support for drug control measures.
- Understanding regional drug consumption patterns is essential for devising targeted interventions.[38] Cultural factors influence drug preferences and behaviors, necessitating culturally informed strategies to combat illegal drug use effectively.
- Raising awareness and educational initiatives are pivotal in addressing drug addiction.[39] Cultural norms and beliefs influence attitudes toward drug use, making culturally tailored education campaigns crucial for shifting societal perceptions and behaviors.
- Rehabilitation centers should collaborate closely with both central and state governments to address substance abuse effectively.[40] Cultural competence in treatment approaches ensures interventions are culturally sensitive and responsive to diverse community needs.
- By integrating cultural perspectives into the implementation of the NDPS Act, policymakers can foster a more inclusive and effective approach to drug regulation. This approach not only respects cultural diversity but also enhances the Act’s impact on public health and safety by addressing substance abuse in a manner that resonates with Indian society’s cultural fabric.
CONCLUSION
In conclusion, the exploration of cultural dimensions in relation to drug abuse within the framework of the NDPS Act underscores the intricate tapestry of societal attitudes, individual choices, and legal repercussions. By delving into these dimensions, we gain valuable insights into how cultural norms shape drug consumption patterns and influence perceptions of substance use. This understanding is pivotal in formulating holistic approaches that encompass enforcement, prevention, and rehabilitation efforts. By integrating these insights into policy and practice, we can strive towards a balanced approach that not only upholds legal mandates but also respects and addresses the diverse cultural contexts in which drug abuse occurs, aiming for comprehensive solutions that foster a healthier society.
Moreover, the recognition of cultural dimensions offers a pathway to empower communities in their own health and well-being. By celebrating cultural diversity and heritage while tackling drug-related issues, India can create a society that is not only healthier but also more cohesive and resilient.
Through continued collaboration, education, and policy innovation, India can set a positive example globally for how cultural sensitivity can strengthen public health initiatives and support sustainable development goals. By embracing these opportunities, India can forge a future where every individual has the opportunity to lead a healthy, fulfilling life free from the harms of substance abuse.
REFERENCES
- Press Information Bureau, Government of India, Magnitude of Drug Abuse In The Country, Posted On: 29 Mar 2023 4:02pm By PIB Delhi, (Jul 16, 2024, 11:14 AM), https://pib.gov.in/PressReleseDetailm.aspx?PRID=1911769
- The Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances (NDPS) Act,1985 and 2021 : An Overview, The Legal Affair, https://thelegalaffair.com/the-narcotic-drugs-and-psychotropic-substances-ndps-act1985-and-2021-an-overview/
- Dr. Ananya Mandal, What is drug abuse, News Medical Life Sciences, (Jul, 16, 2024, 10:40 AM), https://www.news-medical.net/health/What-is-Drug-Abuse.aspx
- Drug Abuse, Britannica, https://www.britannica.com/science/drug-abuse
- The socioeconomic Impact on Addiction, Headwaters, (Jul 17, 2024, 4:48 PM), https://www.headwatersorigins.com/the-socioeconomic-impact-on-addiction/
- Molly Charles, Dave Bewley-Taylor and Amanda Neidpath, DRUG POLICY IN INDIA: COMPOUNDING HARM? Beckley Foundation Drug Policy Programme (Jul 18, 2024, 12:24 PM), https://www.aidsdatahub.org/sites/default/files/resource/drug-policy-india-2005.pdf
- Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances Act, 1985 (NDPS Act), BYJUS, (Jul 17, 2024, 3:36 PM), https://byjus.com/free-ias-prep/narcotic-drugs-and-psychotropic-substances-act-1985/
- Md. Imran Wahab, NDPS Act, 1985: Loopholes and Misuse, Legal services India, (Jul 17, 2024, 5:25 PM), https://www.legalserviceindia.com/legal/article-13293-ndps-act-1985-loopholes-and-misuse.html
- Challenges and Critique of the NDPS Act for – Human rights concerns and issues of over criminalisation-3, (Jul 20, 2024, 9:55 AM), https://www.studocu.com/in/document/kle-societys-law-college/ballb/challenges-and-critique-of-the-ndps-act-for-human-rights-concerns-and-issues-of-over-criminalisation-3/71528792
- Daniela Berti, Gilles Tarabout, Criminal Proceedings in India and the Question of Culture. An Anthropological Perspective, HAL Open science, (Jul 19, 2024, 10:21 AM), https://shs.hal.science/halshs-00870593/document
- Nikunj Arora, A detailed analysis of the National Drugs and Psychotropic Substances Act, LawSikho, (Jul 20, 2024, 4:15 PM), https://blog.ipleaders.in/a-detailed-analysis-of-the-national-drugs-and-psychotropic-substances-act/#Positive_and_negative_aspects_of_the_NDPS_Act
- Shweta S, Kapil K, Gyanendra S. An Overview on Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances Act, 1985. J Forensic Sci & Criminal Inves. 2017; 4(3): 555644. DOI: 10.19080/JFSCI.2017.04.555644., (Jul 20, 2024, 10:09 AM), https://juniperpublishers.com/jfsci/pdf/JFSCI.MS.ID.555644.pdf
[1] Press Information Bureau, Government of India, Magnitude Of Drug Abuse In The Country, Posted On: 29 Mar 2023 4:02pm By Pib Delhi, (Jul 16, 2024, 11:14 AM), https://pib.gov.in/PressReleseDetailm.aspx?PRID=1911769
[2] Ibid.
[3] The Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances (NDPS) Act,1985 and 2021 : An Overview, The Legal Affair, https://thelegalaffair.com/the-narcotic-drugs-and-psychotropic-substances-ndps-act1985-and-2021-an-overview/
[4] Dr. Ananya Mandal, What is drug abuse, News Medical Life Sciences, (Jul, 16, 2024, 10:40 AM), https://www.news-medical.net/health/What-is-Drug-Abuse.aspx
[5] Drug Abuse, Britannica, https://www.britannica.com/science/drug-abuse
[6] Ibid.
[7] Ibid.
[8] The Socioeconomic Impact on Addiction, Headwaters, (Jul 17, 2024, 4:48 PM), https://www.headwatersorigins.com/the-socioeconomic-impact-on-addiction/
[9] Ibid.
[10] Ibid.
[11] Ibid.
[12] Ibid.
[13] Molly Charles, Dave Bewley-Taylor and Amanda Neidpath, DRUG POLICY IN INDIA:
COMPOUNDING HARM? Beckley Foundation Drug Policy Programme (Jul 18, 2024, 12:24 PM), https://www.aidsdatahub.org/sites/default/files/resource/drug-policy-india-2005.pdf
[14] Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances Act, 1985 (NDPS Act), BYJUS, (Jul 17, 2024, 3:36 PM), https://byjus.com/free-ias-prep/narcotic-drugs-and-psychotropic-substances-act-1985/
[15] Ibid.
[16] Ibid.
[17] Md. Imran Wahab, NDPS Act, 1985: Loopholes and Misuse, Legal services India, (Jul 17, 2024, 5:18 https://www.legalserviceindia.com/legal/article-13293-ndps-act-1985-loopholes-and-misuse.html
[18] Ibid.
[19] Md. Imran Wahab, NDPS Act, 1985: Loopholes and Misuse, Legal services India, (Jul 17, 2024, 5:25 PM), https://www.legalserviceindia.com/legal/article-13293-ndps-act-1985-loopholes-and-misuse.html
[20] Challenges and Critique of the NDPS Act for – Human rights concerns and issues of over criminalisation-3, (Jul 20, 2024, 9:55 AM), https://www.studocu.com/in/document/kle-societys-law-college/ballb/challenges-and-critique-of-the-ndps-act-for-human-rights-concerns-and-issues-of-over-criminalisation-3/71528792
[21] Ibid.
[22] Ibid.
[23] Ibid.
[24] Ibid.
[25] Ibid.
[26] Daniela Berti, Gilles Tarabout, Criminal Proceedings in India and the Question of
Culture. An Anthropological Perspective, HAL Open science, (Jul 19, 2024, 10:21 AM), https://shs.hal.science/halshs-00870593/document
[27] Ibid.
[28] Ibid.
[29] Ibid.
[30] Ibid.
[31] Nikunj Arora, A detailed analysis of the National Drugs and Psychotropic Substances Act, LawSikho, (Jul 20, 2024, 4:15 PM), https://blog.ipleaders.in/a-detailed-analysis-of-the-national-drugs-and-psychotropic-substances-act/#Positive_and_negative_aspects_of_the_NDPS_Act
[32] Ibid.
[33] Ibid.
[34] Shweta S, Kapil K, Gyanendra S. An Overview on Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances Act, 1985. J Forensic Sci & Criminal Inves. 2017; 4(3): 555644. DOI: 10.19080/JFSCI.2017.04.555644., (Jul 20, 2024, 10:09 AM), https://juniperpublishers.com/jfsci/pdf/JFSCI.MS.ID.555644.pdf
[35] Ibid.
[36] Ibid.
[37] Ibid.
[38] Ibid.
[39] Ibid
[40] Ibid.
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